[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review.]
The volume collects sixteen essays dedicated to the analysis of the relevance that religion, including theology, assumed in ancient societies and political theories, from Archaic Greece to Augustine. The volume presents a detailed introduction, with an index of concepts and names; the bibliography of each essay is rich and up-to-date. There is only a (minor and irrelevant) flaw in the formatting of the volume: punctuation is not always consistent between the various contributions, or sometimes from page to page in the same paper. In this review, I will focus the attention solely on a few of the numerous papers collected, to highlight their useful and interesting theses for the benefit of specialized and non-specialized readers.
Nurdane Şimşek’s paper considers the value of traditional (Olympian) religion for the civic life of ancient Greek poleis. There was a set of beliefs common to all Greeks, embodied by the Homeric and Hesiodic poems, which were based on older oral traditions; such myths played the role of “sacred texts”, determining the general characteristics of Greek gods, heroes, and (pre)history. However, cultic practices defined the official religion in Greek cities; such rituals were prone to change in response to contingent needs and events. Indeed, according to the author Greek polis religion was shaped by cities themselves as a sort of immanent political-religious structure, whose aim was to support civic cohesion in wars, internal strife, or competitions for the flourishing of the community; distinction between politics and theology occurs only with Plato. These convincing analyses could be further enriched by considering the reaction of official polis religion, not solely to ‘material’ threats, but also to ‘spiritual’ challenges, namely those ‘collateral’ cults or forms of religious aggregations that became an integral part of many citizens’ devotion (e.g. Orphism, Pythagoreanism, Eleusinian Mysteries – or even Socrates’ daemonic sign), to broaden the perspective of the ‘Protean’ nature of ancient civic religion.
Manuel Knoll focuses on the dichotomy between reason and myth formulated by many scholars (especially in early-20th-century scholarship) and offers suggestions to overcome its rigidity. Indeed, rationalization of ancient Greek theology – removal of anthropomorphic elements from the representation of the Divine – was not linear. Instead, it occurred in two different and parallel ways: 1) elimination of mythological elements from philosophical discourses (Anaximander, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anaxagoras, Aristotle); and 2) implementation of mythological elements in philosophical works (Pythagoras, Parmenides, Empedocles, Plato). However, the common trend in figuring the Divine as an abstract ‘Reason’ or ‘Mind’ prevented future theologians from freeing themselves definitively from anthropomorphism.
Francesca Eustacchi considers the Sophists’ critical approach towards popular religious beliefs according to their tendency to affirm the primacy of the human dimension. The author suggests that their interest in the Divine concerns: 1) an epistemological level, namely the possibility of knowing the gods, which gave birth to agnosticism (Protagoras) and sometimes to atheistic rationalism; and 2) a practical level, namely the role played by religion in morality and society, which was at the origin of utilitarianism (Prodicus) and instrumentalism (Critias), i.e., the opinion that the divine sphere is an artificial construction that acts as a motivational horizon either for virtuous actions or civic cohesion. This paper offers detailed and precious analyses of the various passages in which Sophists consider the nature of the divine.
Giovanni Giorgini’s paper analyses Critias’ attitude towards gods as man-made invention with an innovative – to my knowledge – proposal. From the so-called Sisyphus fragment, which the author attributes to Critias, a clear profession of atheism emerges; however, it was not formulated on a metaphysical basis; on the contrary, it was a sort of “political atheism”, since in Athens religion and politics, as well as education, were deeply intertwined. Thus, the author argues that Critias’ atheism was part of an educational project to be employed for political purposes, more precisely to create a future oligarchic Athens ruled by those (‘superior’) citizens who had received a new moral and political education, in which the gods were conceived of as human instruments. It could be interesting, then, to consider if the ‘spirit’ of this program left an observable impact on Critias’ nephew, Plato, and his reform projects of the Republic and the Laws, which rely especially on the importance that a new civic religion assumes for social cohesion (in Plato’s case, not gods as man-made invention but the reformed theology of the kallipolis and the astral religion of Magnesia).
Elena Irrera analyses the use of the word eusebeia in Classical antiquity to interpret the ways in which Plato employs it in his Euthyphro. The word refers to a variety of human attitudes, activities, and beliefs concerning the gods; however, in several literary and philosophical texts, eusebeia means human mutual respect, a moral norm modelled on the general notion of reverence towards the divine, such as in Plato’s Euthyphro. In this dialogue, eusebeia is not connected to formal and non-critical abidance by religious rituals since, as the author argues, this is the meaning of the word hosiotes: eusebeia denotes a critical attitude assumed in ethical controversies, which prompts humans to prefer justice and civic respect in the light of their ‘philosophically-informed’ religious respect. To better determine whether for Plato hosiotes is distinct from the term eusebeia, the author could investigate the use of this word in Classical literary and philosophical texts as she did to advance her interpretation of Plato’s eusebeia, as well as engage with more scholarly works on this issue, for example the analyses of S. Peels, Hosios: A Semantic Study of Greek Piety, Brill, Leiden-Boston 2016: in this way, the author’s thesis that Plato attributes a particular meaning to the ‘opposite’ words eusebeia and hosiotes might find more solid ground.
Francesco Lisi’s paper considers the nature of the Demiurge in Plato’s Timaeus. By adopting a literal reading of the dialogue, the author argues that the Demiurge is both a personal god (who commands other inferior deities) and a mind that is responsible for shaping the sensible cosmos as an ordered whole. He is superior to the World Soul and the Forms: he is somehow their creator (Ideas do not exist independently from the Demiurge) and has an ontological primacy over them; however, he is affected by the Form of the Good, and he acts as an intermediary between this principle and the sensible world. According to Plato, this figure can be known solely by a few extraordinary individuals, the philosophers – that is why the author does not analyse the Demiurge’s possible political relevance. There have been many attempts to determine the precise nature and role of the Demiurge, with countless proposals that fall into three main lines: metaphysical, cosmological, and religious interpretations, the latter being in the minority. For those who follow a literal reading of the Timaeus, this paper offers a new religious interpretation and, partly, a new metaphysical interpretation of the Demiurge: in this regard, the author does not cite – but he converges with – the conclusions of the religious interpretation offered by A. Bortolotti, La religione nel pensiero di Platone. Dalla Repubblica agli ultimi scritti, Leo S. Olschki Editore, Florence 1991, who argues that the Demiurge is assuredly a personal god and rules over many inferior deities. The author’s thesis that the Ideas are somehow “created” by the Demiurge could be further expanded, since this is an interesting – but problematic – reconsideration of Plato’s late metaphysics.
Silvia Gastaldi suggests that in Plato’s Laws two different religions can be found: traditional/civic Olympian religion; and philosophical/astral religion, based on some theological tenets of Plato’s Timaeus (divine universal Intelligence; planets and stars as rational and divine beings, and so on). These two “patterns” are connected to each other, since they aim at replicating the cosmic order in human lives. Indeed, everyone – proportionally to their intellectual potential and civic role – can take part to the universal order arranged by cosmic Intelligence: philosophers and politicians know the actual asset of the kosmos, while base citizens experience and replicate it in traditional and popular religion through ritual dances and celebrations. With this reading of the Laws, the author convincingly shows both how Plato was well aware of the existence of anthropological differences structurally inherent to human souls (as he had already advanced in his Republic) and how he planned his religious and social reforms accordingly.
Maurizio Migliori proposes an interesting way of reading Plato’s dialogues, a “multi-focal” approach, envisaged by Plato himself: on the one hand, reality could be explored by human faculties; on the other hand, by divine intelligence. The same reality is made up of divine causes, such as the Demiurge, Intelligence, the Forms, the divine soul, and providence (consequently, the Divine is “pervasive”, it operates on all levels of reality); different ways of approaching divine reality have different outcomes, for example regarding the nature of laws. Even though laws are inherently subject to change, from a human perspective they must be fashioned as norms that depend on divinities and their constant care for humans; if laws should be changed, they must always be inspired by this general notion.
Jacub Jinek analyses the Cratylus’ discourses on gods’ names (Cra. 391-411) and argues that they serve to introduce different levels of metaphysical reality: this is especially the case with the divine royal triad Uranus-Cronus-Zeus. King Zeus is the image of the World Soul, descendant of pure rationality, inherent to the Noetic dimension, which in turn is symbolized by Cronus and Uranus. In the context of the Cratylus, this correspondence between traditional gods and metaphysical entities refers to the need for philosopher-kings and good legislators not to ascend to ultimate power on the basis of mere birth, but because of the rationality of their souls; in other words, intelligence is the criterion for validity of genealogic affiliation and succession. This is an innovative reading of the etymology of (some) divine names of the Cratylus and shows Plato’s consistency regarding the role that divine entities assume for conveying, first of all, moral and political messages; indeed, this is in accordance with the value of theologia discussed in the Republic.
In her paper, Maria Liatsi examines Book XII of Aristotle’s Metaphysics and further reassesses some considerations on Aristotle’s God already advanced by other scholars. God is a metaphysical principle and is described as an entity that regulates the cosmos by being the object of longing; indeed, this principle puts in motion those who are subject to love, which is to say the entire cosmos. Through a textual comparison between Metaphysics XII and Nicomachean Ethics X, the author suggests that Aristotle’s God, with its reflexive thought, i.e. its purest self-reference, becomes a paradigmatic example of the best and happiest life, the contemplative one.
Denis Walter analyses cosmopolitanism in Cicero and convincingly distinguishes an ethical cosmopolitanism (which presupposes horizontal relationships between individuals), and a political one (a vertical structure between rulers and ruled). Political cosmopolitanism is based on the conception both of God as governor of the cosmos and of the existence of natural and universal laws. According to Cicero, no state can become a political cosmopolis: cosmopolitanism is just regulative, since cities can only aspire to live as independent and different realities that coexist in peaceful interactions.
Christoph Horn reappraises other scholars’ thesis that the older Augustine was less tolerant towards heretics and non-believers, but rather favored political coercion; he does so by considering this interpretation in the light of modern perspective. Indeed, in some of his works Augustine implicitly theorizes different forms of toleration. One such form is based on love and humanism; a second one aims at preservation of unity (especially after discussions between people curious to better understand the meaning of God’s word); finally, the third one presupposes free conscience in the light of the theory of the ‘two cities’, according to which there is a human political sphere which exists in its own right. Thus, Augustine formulates a theory partly similar to modern political liberalism: free consensus leads to the establishment of public administration; public order must be protected; neutrality of the state must be observed vis-à-vis (good) private life.
Not only the papers briefly discussed in this review, but all the contributions of this volume offer convincing analyses of the importance of the notion of the Divine in ancient Greek societies and political thinking. The volume as a whole tends to focus on Early and Classical Antiquity (especially Plato), and so other figures who consider the notions of god, religion, and society before Augustine – for example Early Stoics, the pseudo-Pythagorean writings Peri basileias, Pagan Neoplatonists, or even Athenian tragedies – are not directly addressed: the pervasiveness of such topics in ancient thought opens up the prospect of new contributions in the wake of this valuable collection of essays.
Authors and Titles
Nurdane Şimşek, The Polis as the Measure of All Things: The Relation of Greek Mythology to Polis Religion
Manuel Knoll, On the Rationalization of Ancient Greek Theology
Sylvana V. Chrysakopoulou, The ‘Theology’ of the First Philosopher-Poets: the Case of Xenophanes
Francesca Eustacchi, Gods and Religion in the Sophistic Context: between Agnosticism and Utilitarian Rationalism
Giovanni Giorgini, The Man who Invented God: Atheism in the Sisyphus Fragment
Josef Moural, Greek Polytheist Cults and Monotheist Thinking in Tension (and its Political Reverberations)
Elena Irrera, Eusebeia for the Gods as a Matter of Justice: Greek Popular Religion and Plato’s Euthyphro
Francisco L. Lisi, Demiurge, Good, Forms: Some Reflections on a Crucial Problem of Plato’s Metaphysics
Silvia Gastaldi, Religion in Plato’s Laws: Traditional Cults and Astral Theology
Alberto Maffi, Plato, Lg. 910: What Impiety?
Maurizio Migliori, Plato: The Pervasive Nature of the Divinity and the Importance of Religion
Jacub Jinek, Naming God as ‘King’ and the Figure of the Legislator in Plato’s Cratylus
Maria Liatsi, Aristotle’s Departure from the Commonsense Concept of God
Denis Walter, Variants of Cosmopolitanism and Individual States in Cicero’s Works
Christoph Horn, Religious Toleration in Augustine?
Bernat Torres, Gods, Puppets and Impiety: Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin on God and the Divine in Plato’s Laws