[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review.]
The editors have produced an extensive and multi-faceted book on an extensive and multi-faceted subject. It results from a conference held in Rome in November 2018 on (so-called) Greek colonisation. The nearly 600 pages[1] address a range of debates that have emerged in recent decades. As the title indicates, the book’s main goal is promoting dialogue between geographical regions, namely Southern Italy and the Black Sea. The editors thus aim to fill a gap in research on Greek colonisation since the West and the East are mostly worked on separately by specialists for the respective regions. This requires a framework for organising the case studies to encourage comparative reading. The size of the book adds to the challenge, but the editors have solved this problem well by including both a general preface and concise introductions to each section in order to guide the reader. At the same time, with only four main sections, the volume is not too fragmented, making it easy to use. A detailed and carefully compiled index of locations also promotes the accessibility of the information provided. The structure thus facilitates the reader’s own comparisons between the case studies presented.
The first section is devoted to the investigation of the construction of economic systems, a term that is broadly defined to include a whole range of socio-economic phenomena, exchange relations, and resource regimes of the archaic Greek period. In keeping with this expansive concept, the contributions are not limited to an economic sphere characterised by trade and the production of commodities. Instead, they use the thematic framework to examine related aspects (such as settlement characteristics shaped by economic activities) and their significance for specific migration movements. In the preface to this section, Pietro Vannicelli identifies mobility and settlement consolidation as poles of the analysis of Greek foundations that stand in a dialectical relationship to each other. He goes on to consider to what extent the mobilities of the eighth century BCE represent a radical change, or whether these mobilities were not rather, as has been argued by historians and archaeologists for some time, a never-ending series of migrations, among which qualitative differences cannot always be precisely determined. Vannicelli emphasises the importance of economic relations in characterising the sometimes complex relationship between the Greeks and the indigenous population, also with regard to literary evidence. In this respect, the economic system also determines the nature of the settlement consolidation in the context of Greek colonisation. The contributions gathered in the part following these introductory words cover a wide range of sites and approaches: Massimo Giuseppetti makes a start and, in the wake of Sarah Owen’s work, subjects the foundation story of Thasos, which is closely linked to the poet Archilochos, to renewed critical examination. He identifies traces of elements contemporaneous with the legend’s transcription and refers to the mechanisms of cultural memory. In doing so, he demonstrates that contemporary colonial ideology and Critias’ anti-democratic polemics had a significant impact on the foundation story.
Seeking to identify pull-factors[2] in Magna Graecia and Sicily, Kai Riehle takes a more wide-angle perspective, as do Ségolène Maudet for Campania and Flavia Frisone for a transregional case study on the distinction between primary and secondary colonisation. In what follows, Riehle points out that tangible resources in the destination area of migration movements must not be considered in isolation but within a socio-economic production process.
In addition, there are contributions in the section that fulfil a dual function, as they report on excavation campaigns and new finds on the one hand but, on the other hand, also deal with broader issues. Stefanos Gimatzidis, for example, addresses the fascinating case study of Mende, in which he can show convincingly that here a single act of foundation is hardly compatible with the reality of the archaeological evidence and that instead, a far more complex picture emerges, which is characterised by continuous immigration. However, his criticism of research based on literary sources, nomima,[3] dialect research and the coinage system—research that assumes colonisation in the imperialist sense—seems somewhat outdated, as such a one-sided approach is hardly practised any more.
In a volume also dealing with Greek settlements in the West, a case study of Ischia should not be missing, and indeed Alain Bresson and Gloria Olcese provide an overview; the Western Mediterranean is also represented in this section by the papers of Stefania De Vido and Emanuela Spagnoli. The contribution by Natia Phiphia and the article by Alexander Butyagin and Alexey Kasparov deserve special mention, as they deal with spaces that are often overlooked by Anglo-Saxon and continental European classical studies due to language barriers. Phiphia looks at Kolchis and the old and still difficult question of whether settlements there are to be understood as emporia or apoikiai. Her focus is on taking stock and collecting arguments. Therefore, she limits herself to a brief (perhaps too brief) definition of the two terms. Nevertheless, the subsequent discussion of the settlements of Phasis, Dioscurias, Gyenos, and Pichvnari is conclusive. Given the problem that the archaic Greek economic history of the Bosporus is not very well researched and many archaic settlement layers have been destroyed, Butyagin and Kasparov present the interesting case study of Myrmekion. By examining landfill sites and analysing pollen, they are able to draw conclusions about cultivated cereals, livestock, hunting and fishing. Furthermore, weaving weights found indicate a local production of fabric on a small scale.
The second section is dedicated to a complex of problems that have significantly shaped scholarship on Greek colonisation in recent decades: that is, the question of what Greekness means in colonial contexts and under which definition or circumstances ethnicity is a useful theoretical construct for understanding the migration phenomena of early Greek history. In the introduction to the section, Martin A. Guggisberg and Camilla Colombi address the question of the peaceful or belligerent character of relations between such constructed social units, which is closely linked to the discussion on the boundaries of ethnic identities. In the context of those remarks, Chiara Maria Marchetti and Valeria Parisi’s reassessment of the findings from Saturo[4] is particularly interesting. They paint a complex picture in which cooperation and conflict alternated, depending on the situation. In light of new finds, Clemente Marconi discusses Selinous, noting that the acropolis was uninhabited between the late Bronze Age and the late seventh century BCE. He further concludes that though the relationship with the hinterland population was often violent there, other forms of interaction also can be traced. Thus, peaceful interaction and violent conflict were not mutually exclusive. Taking up postcolonial perspectives, Gabriel Zuchtriegel subjects the concept of ethnicity to a fundamental critique. He argues vehemently for a “shift from a more ethnic to a more socio-historical approach” (219) and shows once again that a single actor could unite a multitude of ethnic identities. The fact that identities can also be shared across regions is demonstrated by Luciano Altomare in his contribution, in which he discusses the role of heroes such as Heracles as mythical mediators between origin and destination or between indigenous and migrant peoples.
Many contributions provide equally essential insights about cultural contacts gained from more recent excavations. These include the articles by Maria Cecilia Parra (Kaulonia), Oscar Belvedere and Aurelio Burgio (Himera’s hinterland), and Chiara Blasetti Fantauzzi (Eryx). Flore Lerosier examines the role of the proasteion, which she sees as an important interface connecting the agricultural hinterland, the sea and the city itself. Lorenzo Nigro maintains the geographical focus on the West. However, with the Phoenician Motya, he takes up an interesting case of comparison to settlements usually classified as Greek. The contribution by Marina Yu. Vakhtina turns back to the Black Sea region. By examining archaic Greek pottery in the landlocked hill fort of Nemirov, she provides interesting insights into pre-colonial contacts.
The third section is dedicated to defining the social and territorial systems, an admittedly broad field, ranging from the topography of the settlemen, to the communication spaces between the city and the hinterland, to the parcelling of the chora in the context of the natural environment. At the same time, the section is committed to comparison, especially since territorial concepts differ from region to region, as Ortwin Dally points out in the introduction. It is therefore consistent that here too, numerous contributions focus on the Black Sea region, and it is commendable that Dally, one of the leading experts in this area, frames the discussion. Against this background, the studies of Elena Mango, Giuseppe Cordiano and Raffaele Palumbo, Rubens D’Oriano, and Sophie Helas focus on the Western Mediterranean. The Black Sea region, on the other hand, is represented by the contributions of Gocha R. Tsetskhladze, Iulian Bîrzescu, Alla Bujskikh, Vasilica Lungu and Yuri A. Vinogradov. Here, Bîrzescu and Lungu are especially interested in how settlement dynamics and natural conditions are connected. Providing an interesting case study of the socio-economic interaction of a temporarily resident indigenous population and Greek settlers, Vinogradov deals with the settlement of Artyushchenko-1 on the Taman peninsula, between the Azov and Black Seas. He shows that Maeotian groups from the Kuban area dwelled near the Greek settlement during the harvest season, thus playing a role in agricultural production. In one of his last publications before his unexpected death in 2022 at the age of 59, Gocha R. Tsetskhladze gives a broad overview of the Black Sea region in the archaic period. Drawing on a wide range of sources, he discusses the founding dates of the Greek colonies, the relationship between Greeks and the indigenous population, and the role played by the Achaemenid conquest.
The last section is not, strictly speaking, a conclusion, but it has a similar function. The editors have opted for short problem outlines, which is reasonable given the complexity of the matter. Considering the current state of the debate, it is almost impossible to deal with all issues comprehensively. Likewise, one of the greatest, most significant future challenges of research on Greek colonisation, in my opinion, will be to systematise the different bodies of knowledge and interpretive contexts to make them compatible with each other and to make them usable for new research questions. On the other hand, the focal points—the comparative method, territorial and social systems, and the uniformity of Greek colonisation—are well chosen, and the problem of comparability is extensively addressed. At the same time, the authors’ particular emphases have been preserved.
Thus, Pier Giovanni Guzzo takes a decidedly broad approach to the topic and reminds us to consider that any current knowledge only represents an interim status, a snapshot, and is also based on the fact that we are bound to our own time because we are socialised into the present, bringing with us contemporary preconceptions. Furthermore, he warns against the reflexive prioritisation of written sources or archaeological evidence unilaterally and instead advocates a methodically differentiated dialogue.
On the other hand, Michel Gras chooses an approach more focused on the history of research in which he situates more recent developments in scholarship. He emphasises socio-spatial phenomena, the role of comparison, and cultural dynamics. When he reflects on the search for reasons for colonisation and the departure from the classic tendency, exemplified by scholars such as Alan Blakeway and John Boardman, to identify trade as its main cause, Gras correctly states that it is necessary to think of early Greek migrations from the point of view of a rural lifeworld. His comments suggest, however, that the trade thesis needs to be completely replaced by a narrative of rural Greece marked by crises in the context of strong population growth, which in turn perhaps underestimates the variety of motives for emigration and the underlying social dynamics.
Denise Demetriou takes the fact that the volume not only focuses on the Mediterranean region but also on the Black Sea region as an opportunity to pose the question of similarities and differences between the West and the East. Central to this is the reminder of what is lost from view when the focus is too one-sidedly on ethnicity as a collective phenomenon. Newly emerging local histories show how well local actors’ agency can be elaborated in individual cases, an insight that is undoubtedly correct. However, regarding the accessibility of the information for the reader, it might have been helpful if a little more detail could have been given about the structural differences between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea region.
While all the concluding contributions deal with comparison, Lieve Donnellan devotes the most extensive attention to the topic by addressing fundamental methodological considerations. Of course, the problem itself is old, and many possible productive approaches exist. Donnellan notes that in the context of research on Greek colonisation, several obstacles make comparison difficult. First, the different languages of scholarship, especially the big four (English, Italian, French and German), led researchers to ask different questions. It is in the nature of things that misunderstandings can arise. However, this is precisely where a great potential for innovation lies. Another problem, however, seems more profound: the diversity, variety and sometimes sheer incompatibility of systems for organising knowledge, such as classification systems, and sometimes the methods for generating it. This very problem is, indeed, one of the greatest, if not the greatest, challenges of the research field, which requires the courage to recognise differences and understand their reasons.
Considering this fascinating but also challenging topic, the editors fulfil their promise in the title: to make comparisons and to take stock, so to speak. The numerous good contributions speak for themselves. However, the problem of connecting information and perspectives across these contributions is also evident here and there in this volume. Given that the problem is omnipresent in research on Greek colonisation, this could hardly be otherwise. In general, and especially in the introductions and conclusions framing the sections, a high degree of the awareness of the problem is evident. The challenges that methodological disparity and the fragmented field of research pose to the acquisition of historical knowledge are regularly and unerringly named. This high awareness of the field’s challenges, in particular, along with the quality of its contributions, the relevance of the information provided, and its utility, makes the book a key contribution to research on Greek colonisation.
Authors and Titles
Martin A. Guggisberg, Ortwin Dally, Valeria Parisi, Camilla Colombi, Giorgio Piras, “Comparing Greek Colonies—An Introduction”
The Construction of the Economic System
Pietro Vannicelli, “Aspetti del consolidamento delle poleis in ambito coloniale. Introduzione alla sezione”
Massimo Giuseppetti, “Archiloco e la leggenda coloniale di Paro: un riesame della tradizione letteraria”
Stefania De Vido, “Possedere la terra, diventare un’élite. Osservazioni a partire dai casi di Megara Iblea e Selinunte”
Stefanos Gimatzidis, “Early Greek Colonisation in the Northern Aegean: A New Perspective from Mende”
Flavia Frisone, “A Look Inside the Continuum: Greek Secondary Colonization Between Model and Experiment”
Kai Riehle, “Migration and Resources: Why the West?”
Natia Phiphia, “Greek Colonies in Ancient Colchis—Poleis or Emporia?”
Alain Bresson, Gloria Olcese, “Commerci, artigianato e agricoltura del ‘nuovo mondo’. Il caso di Ischia”
Alexander Butyagin, Alexey Kasparov, “The Economy of Archaic Myrmekion”
Ségolène Maudet, “A Campanian Economic System Between the 8th and 6th Centuries BCE?”
Emanuela Spagnoli, “Mobilità e consolidamento territoriale in Magna Grecia in età tardo arcaica nella prospettiva della moneta incusa di Crotone”
Relationships and Forms of Contact With the Indigenous Population
Martin A. Guggisberg, Camilla Colombi, “Relationships and Forms of Contact with the Indigenous Population—Introduction to the Session”
Gabriel Zuchtriegel, “Greek-Indigenous Relations—The Wrong Question? Postcolonial Perspectives on Identity in Greek Overseas Settlements”
Luciano Altomare, “Paesaggi e sistemi territoriali nel golfo di Taranto: il popolamento enotrio e greco a confront”
Chiara Maria Marchetti, Valeria Parisi, “Un decennio di ricerche a Satùro (Taranto). Frammenti di storia locale nell’età della colonizzazione”
Maria Cecilia Parra, “Note su Kaulonía e la Kauloniatide tra VIII e VII sec. a.C., tra presenze e assenze presso il Capo Cocinto”
Flore Lerosier, “Città euboiche e contatti di culture: il ruolo del proasteion”
Clemente Marconi, “Greeks and Natives at the Foundation of Selinus: A Revision”
Oscar Belvedere, Aurelio Burgio, “Landscape Dynamics and Cultural Contacts in the Territory of Himera in the Archaic Period”
Chiara Blasetti Fantauzzi, “Erice in età arcaica. Interazioni culturali tra popolazioni locali e Greci”
Lorenzo Nigro, “Motya, the Rise of a Port-City: Demography and Colonial Models in Comparison”
Marina Yu. Vakhtina, “Greek Archaic Pottery from the Nemirov Hill-Fort in the Context of Early Antique Imports from Local Sites on the Northern Black Sea Coast”
The Definition of Social and Territorial Systems
Ortwin Dally, “Defining Territorial and Social Systems. Introduction to the Session”
Rubens D’Oriano, “Olbia 630–510 a.C.: l’unico insediamento greco della Sardegna”
Elena Mango, “HIMERA—Reflections Regarding its Role and Importance within the Network of Colonial Settlements in Sicily”
Sophie Helas, “Le sepolture e le tombe a tumulo protoarcaiche nell’agorà di Selinunte”
Giuseppe Cordiano, Raffaele Palumbo, “Siculi, emporoi euboici ed apoikoi locresi in Aspromonte: Metauros da centro protostorico a popolamento misto a ‘sub-colonia’ locrese”
Vasilica Lungu, “Territoriality and Dynamics of Socio-Economic Patterned Networks at the Beginning of Greek Colonization in the Western Black Sea”
Yuri A. Vinogradov, “Settlement Artyushchenko-1 on the Taman Peninsula in the Archaic Period: Culture, Ethnicity and Economy”
Alla Bujskikh, “Aphrodite in Olbia: Sacred Gifts in Cult Practice”
Iulian Bîrzescu, “Siedlungsdynamik an der unteren Donau in archaischer Zeit und die Entstehung der Stadt Istrie/Histria”
Gocha R. Tsetskhladze, “Classical Archaeology of the Pontus in the Archaic Period: Some Current Problems and Prospective Solutions”
Round Table and Summarizing Contributions
Pier Giovanni Guzzo, “Comparing Greek Colonization”
Michel Gras, “Systèmes territoriaux et sociaux dans les espaces grecs”
Denise Demetriou, “How Uniform Was Early Greek Colonization? Comparing Greek Colonies East and West”
Lieve Donnellan, “Comparing Colonies: Challenges and Prospects”
Notes
[1] Due to the size of the book, I will limit myself to discussing a few exemplary contributions and summarising the others. My aim in the selection of articles has been to give as representative an impression as possible of the different approaches to Greek colonisation in the book.
[2] i.e. factors in the destination area that provide an incentive to migrate
[3] i.e. in the context of the article, customs, which include, for example, cult practices or calendars
[4] i.e. the nucleus of Taras where, according to tradition, Phalantos and the partheniai landed