The Oxford handbook of pre-Roman Italy (1000–49 BCE)

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[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review]

Over the past two decades, the study of pre-Roman Italy has witnessed a growing interest among international scholars. In a field of research often characterized by the predominant use of the Italian language, a series of mainly English-language monographs and collected studies have been published over the last twenty years or so.[1] These publications, regardless of topic, have attempted to adopt a more ʻmodernʼ approach, paying attention to issues such as identity, intercultural connectivity, and hybridisation. They consist of overviews of Italy and the peoples who settled there during the last millennium BCE, as well as detailed studies of individual populations or specific socio-economic topics. Common to all is the use of a wide range of sources (archaeological, historical, epigraphic) and the portrayal of Italy as a geographical area made up of different, interconnected entities, treated as equal actors in the historical evolution of the peninsula until the definitive rise of Rome. This latter aspect, above all, challenges and overcomes the identity-based view stressed by earlier studies on pre-Roman Italy, which saw in the Italic populations the embryonic elements of modern Italians. Such an ʻidentitarianʼ approach has had mixed fortunes since the birth of the Italian state in the mid-19^th century and remains in the background even in more recent studies.

The volume under review is the latest publication in this new line of research. In some respects, it represents a synthesis of the latest works, albeit with a more conventional structure in the form of a collection of different contributions written by an international pool of scholars. The chronological span indicated in the title, 1000–49 BCE, is indicative of the contents of the book. The starting date corresponds roughly to the transition between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, which is a common starting point for studies on pre-Roman Italy. This period marks the beginning of the differentiation of the various ethnic groups that characterize the later historical development of ancient Italy. Of great interest, however, is the end date, given as an exact year, 49 BCE. In fact, the volumeʼs chronological scope notably exceeds the traditional limits of other works on the Iron Age, extending to a period when Italy was entirely romanized. The date in question coincides with the introduction of the Lex Roscia, which extended Roman citizenship to the populations north of the Po River, and with the outbreak of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, which marked the beginning of the end of the res publica and the unification of the peninsula, a process only completed with the consolidation of the Augustan principate. This chronological choice reflects the intention to give a precise geographical dimension to the concept of Italy. In fact, the area covered in the volume corresponds to the Italian peninsula as shaped by the Lex Roscia and the end of the Republic, in other words, to the territory of the eleven Augustan regions that stretched from the Straits of Messina to the Alps. This decision is also consistent with the choice of the populations presented in the book, which, as we shall see, includes all those from northern Italy that are generally overlooked.

The table of contents reveals the involvement of leading international experts in the field. The list of contributors is of the highest level, giving the book considerable scholarly value. The internal structure of the work presents the various populations that inhabited ancient Italy, accompanied by several in-depth chapters. Each contribution is provided with an up-to-date bibliography, while images (black and white only) and maps are included only where considered essential to the narrative. However, the volume differs from most of its predecessors in terms of the variety of topics it addresses, the choice of the populations it presents, and its more articulated structure. Following an extensive, programmatic introduction by Maiuro, the chapters are divided into three separate thematic sections.

Part I. “Structures: Background and Actorsˮ comprises no fewer than 21 chapters, arranged thematically in two parts. The first seven chapters deal with overarching themes concerning the whole of pre-Roman Italy. These include a discussion of the challenges associated with the reconstruction of the ancient landscape (Chapter 1 by Peter Attema and Jan Sevink) and an analysis of the development of the concept of Italy as evidenced in historical sources, starting from the narrow area between the modern territories of Calabria and Basilicata that first bore the name ‘Italy’ (Chapter 7 by William V. Harris). Other chapters in this initial section deal with general topics, such as the spread of urbanisation as a characteristic feature of certain regions of the peninsula (Chapter 2 by Stéphane Bourdin); the epigraphic aspects associated with the spread of the alphabet and its adaptation to various pre-Roman languages (Chapter 3 by Rex Wallace); religiosity and its manifestations, based on important sources such as the Tabulae Iguvinae, as well as the development and evolution of sanctuaries among various populations (Chapter 4 by Olivier de Cazanove and Emmanuel Dupraz); the reconstruction of ancient demography, its problematic nature and the fact that it is often linked to the history of Rome and its expansion (Chapter 5 by Elio Lo Cascio); and, finally, despite the scarcity of sources, a synthesis of the social and legislative structures of the various Italic populations and a comparison with the order attested in Rome (Chapter 6 by Elena Tassi Scandone).

The next fourteen chapters in Part I deal with the populations of Italy, presented in a geographical order from south to north, beginning with the Western Greeks who colonized the coasts of southern Italy and ending with the populations settled in the Alps. It is worth mentioning that specific chapters are devoted to the Greeks (Chapter 8 by Clemente Marconi), the Phoenicians in Italy (Chapter 9 by Giuseppe Garbati), the Romans (Chapter 14 by Gabriele Cifani), and the Etruscans (Chapter 16 by Carmen Esposito and Simon Stoddart). These populations are rarely included in comprehensive works on pre-Roman Italy, either because they are considered foreign to the original population of the peninsula or because they are perceived as more important and are therefore the subject of dedicated studies. The fact that populations generally considered to have played a leading role are treated here as mere actors on an equal footing with other groups allows for a more nuanced understanding of the dialectical relationship and mutual influence between different communities, which is a distinctive feature of the history of pre-Roman Italy. As for the other peoples, three chapters are dedicated to southern populations, including the Lucanians (Chapter 10 by Maurizio Gualtieri), the peoples of Apulia (Chapter 11 by Enzo Lippolis), and the Samnites (Chapter 12 by Adriano La Regina). The populations of central Italy comprise the Latins (Chapter 13 by Daniele Federico Maras), the Falisci and Capenati (Chapter 15 by Maria Cristina Biella), and the Umbrians (Chapter 17 by Petra Amann). The ancient peoples of the Po Valley and northern Italy are addressed in four contributions, devoted to the Veneti (Chapter 18 by Loredana Capuis), the Celts (Chapter 19 by Paola Piana Agostinetti), the Ligurians and the populations of the western Alps (Chapter 20 by Bianca Maria Giannattasio) and, finally, the Raeti and the populations of the eastern Alps (Chapter 21 by Franco Marzatico).

Part II. “Historiesˮ is divided into four chapters, each of which addresses a distinct phase. The first chapter (1000–650 BCE) deals with Iron Age Italy and the so-called Orientalizing period, characterized by the first ethnic and social differentiations and the beginning of urbanisation (Chapter 22 by Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Claudio Giardino). The chapter that follows is devoted primarily to the Archaic period (630–474 BCE), which witnessed the definitive adoption of the urban model, especially in certain areas of the peninsula, such as Etruria, where cities played a central role in shaping the dynamics of interaction and conflict between the main Mediterranean powers (Chapter 23 by Christopher Smith). The next chapter examines the period 474–270 BCE, a phase that saw the end of the previous balance of power (i.e., between Etruscans, Carthaginians and Greeks in Italy), partly due to the appearance of new actors, such as the Samnites in the south and the Celts in the north, followed by the gradual advancement of Rome across the entire peninsula (Chapter 24 by Daniele Miano). The last chapter of this section analyzes the transformation of Italy in relation to the Roman expansion across the Mediterranean from the Punic Wars to the end of the Republic (Chapter 25 by Federico Santangelo).

Part III. “Connections, Exchange, Mediatorsˮ is the most extensive in the volume, containing no fewer than twenty-four chapters. This final section constitutes a particularly innovative aspect of the book. It addresses a number of topics that are currently at the center of scholarly interest in pre-Roman Italy studies.[2] The first four chapters deal with socio-cultural aspects of pre-Roman Italy and provide a detailed analysis of the political institutions attested among the various pre-Roman populations (Chapter 26 by Adriano Maggiani); the distinctive family structure of the Etruscans, as revealed by epigraphic sources (Chapter 27 by Enrico Benelli); the development of the banqueting practice in the context of the interchange of models between different communities (Chapter 28 by Mauro Menichetti); and the introduction of theatrical performances in pre-Roman Italy in relation to the Greek model (Chapter 29 by Gesine Manuwald). These chapters are followed by three studies dealing with pre-Roman linguistics, including an in-depth analysis of the Sabellian languages and their evolution in the historical framework of ancient Italy (Chapter 30 by Paolo Poccetti); an interesting presentation of the Etruscan language in relation to other ancient languages such as Latin, Sabellian dialects, and Rhaetic (Chapter 31 by Enrico Benelli); and an analysis of the spread of Latin among the Italic populations exemplified in some significant case studies (Chapter 32 by Gilles van Heems). The following chapters deal with the definition of space in ancient Italy, from the sacred space in connection with the ancient landscape (Chapter 33 by Ingrid Edlund-Berry) and the private space connected to the domestic sphere (Chapter 34 by Maurizio Harari) up to the relationship between ancient Italy and the islands (Chapter 35 by Stefania De Vido).

A long series of contributions on historical and economic topics follows, dealing with inter-community connection not only within pre-Roman Italy but also with far-away areas, including central Europe and the wider Mediterranean. Chapters 36 and 37 cover two important historical themes: the first deals with the Battle of Sentinum (295 BC), which determined the destiny of the peninsula and the consolidation of Romeʼs power in Italy (Nathan Rosenstein), while the second reconstructs the widespread and complex practice of mercenary service on the basis of historical and archaeological sources (Gianluca Tagliamonte). Chapters 38 and 39 deal with economy and craftmanship, the first on coinage (Annalisa Polosa), and the second on the production of black-gloss pottery, which constituted one of the most characteristic elements of pre-Roman material culture, especially in the late Classical and Hellenistic periods (Roman Roth). Beginning with Chapter 40, devoted to the presence of exotic and luxury goods and the adoption of Oriental models in the peninsula (Anthony Tuck), the following six contributions deal not only with trade relations but, more interestingly, with cultural contacts and the transfer of models and knowledge that lay behind them, as recent research suggests. One contribution looks to the north and to amber and the supply routes that crossed central Europe, which became a vehicle for cultural transmission, as exemplified by the spread of the so-called “Situla Artˮ (Chapter 41 by Larissa Bonfante), while another analyzes the exchange networks existing between the Tyrrhenian coast of Italy, Sardinia, and the Greek and Phoenician communities settled in the western Mediterranean (Chapter 42 by Franco De Angelis).

The following three chapters focus on the relationship between the Greeks and the Etruscan-Italic world. The first contribution examines the role of Greek pottery in Italy, also (like amber) as a channel of cultural transmission (Chapter 43 by Athena Tsingarida). The second maps and reviews the distribution and typology of Etruscan and Italic artifacts documented in Greek sanctuaries (Chapter 44 by Alessandro Naso). The third focuses on the island of Delos and its central role in relations between the Late Hellenistic Aegean and Italy (Chapter 45 by Gary Reger). The last four chapters of the volume discuss the forms of religiosity attested on the peninsula during the pre-Roman period, once again from the perspective of cultural transfer between different communities and the cultural hybridization between the Greek model and the indigenous substrate. This is particularly evident in the chapter on the cult of Herakles, which traces its introduction in the 7^th century BC and its subsequent adoption into the Italic pantheon (Chapter 46 by Shirley J. Schwarz); in the chapter devoted to the cults of Dionysus/Bacchus and Ceres/Demeter in Greece and Italy and the adoption of eschatological practices associated with Dionysian cults in some areas of the peninsula (Chapter 47 by Cornelia Isler-Kerényi); and in the chapter on the connections and intermingling of mythical traditions of different origins and the existence of an indigenous mythology, mainly oral, often associated with the mythical foundation of certain cities or the ethnogenesis of a people (Chapter 48 by Nancy T. de Grummond). The final chapter provides a comprehensive overview of terracotta votives, one of the most distinctive religious expressions of central Italy (Chapter 49 by Massimiliano Papini).

In conclusion, the volume offers an excellent overview of pre-Roman Italy, both for the less experienced reader who wishes to approach the subject and for the more expert one who will find in the various contributions an up-to-date treatment and extensive bibliographical references. In such a vast work, the lack of contributions devoted to the Picenian world and, more generally, to the so-called “Middle-Adriaticˮ reality is somewhat surprising, especially considering that this area has been the subject of intense research activity in recent years[3]. However, in such a comprehensive work, gaps are inevitable and do not detract from the overall quality.

Authors and Titles

Introduction

Italy: The Crucial Millennium (Marco Maiuro)

Part I. Structures: Background and Actors

1. The Peoples and Landscapes of Protohistoric and Classical Italy (Peter Attema and Jan Sevink)
2. Urbanization and the Urban Model in Pre-Roman Italy (Stéphane Bourdin)
3. Alphabets, Orthography, and Literacy (Rex Wallace)
4. Religions and Religiosity in Italy (Olivier de Cazanove and Emmanuel Dupraz)
5. Demography (Elio Lo Cascio)
6. Laws and Legal Systems (Elena Tassi Scandone)
7. Italy and Italies (William V. Harris)
8. The Greeks (Clemente Marconi)
9. The Phoenicians in Italy (Giuseppe Garbati)
10. The Lucani (Maurizio Gualtieri)
11. Apulia (Enzo Lippolis)
12. The Samnites (Adriano La Regina)
13. Latium and the Latini (Daniele Federico Maras)
14. The Romans (Gabriele Cifani)
15. The Faliscans and the Capenates (Maria Cristina Biella)
16. The Etruscans (Carmen Esposito and Simon Stoddart)
17. The Umbrians (Petra Amann)
18. The Veneti (Loredana Capuis)
19. The Celts of Italy (Paola Piana Agostinetti)
20. The Ligurians and Other Alpine Peoples (Bianca Maria Giannattasio)
21. The Raeti and Other Northeastern Alpine Peoples (Franco Marzatico)

Part II. Histories

22. A New Start, 1000–630 BCE (Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Claudio Giardino)
23. The Long Sixth Century, 630–474 BCE (Christopher Smith)
24. Instability and Change, 474–270 BCE (Daniele Miano)
25. Italy in a Global Context, 270–49 BCE (Federico Santangelo)

Part III. Connections, Exchanges, Mediators

26. Magistrates and Political Institutions (Adriano Maggiani)
27. Family Structures (Enrico Benelli)
28. The Banquet (Mauro Menichetti)
29. Spectacles and Games Prior to the Emergence of “Roman Drama” (Gesine Manuwald)
30. The Sabellian Languages: Linguistic vs. Ethnic Identities (Paolo Poccetti)
31. Etruscan, Between Isolation and Linguistic Exchanges (Enrico Benelli)
32. The Latinization of Pre-Roman Italy (Gilles van Heems)
33. Defining Sacred Space in Ancient Italy (Ingrid Edlund-Berry)
34. Private Spaces in Pre-Roman Italy (Maurizio Harari)
35. Italy and Its Islands (Stefania De Vido)
36. The Battle of Sentinum: A Pan-Italic War (Nathan Rosenstein)
37. Italic Mercenaries in the Pre-Roman Period (Gianluca Tagliamonte)
38. Coins and Civic Identities (Annalisa Polosa)
39. The Many Facets of Black-Gloss Pottery (Roman Roth)
40. The Lure of the East: Luxury Goods (Anthony Tuck)
41. Amber in Italy: Provenance and Meaning (Larissa Bonfante)
42. Exchange Networks with the West (Franco De Angelis)
43. Greek Vases in Pre-Roman Italy (Athena Tsingarida)
44. Etruscan and Italic Offerings in Greek Sanctuaries (Alessandro Naso)
45. Merchants and Traders on Hellenistic Delos (Gary Reger)
46. The Italic Herakles/Hercle/Hercules (Shirley J. Schwarz)
47. Salvation and Bliss: Bacchus and Demeter (Cornelia Isler-Kerényi)
48. Italic Sacred Stories and Greek Connections (Nancy T. de Grummond)
49. Bodies in Pieces in Central Italy: Votives (Massimiliano Papini)

Notes

[1] For example: G. Bradley, E. Isayev, C. Riva (eds), Ancient Italy: Regions without Boundaries, Exeter 2007; S. Bourdin, Le peuples de l’Italie préromaine. Identités, territoires et relations inter-ethniques en Italie centrale et septentrionale (VIII ͤ – I ͤ ͬ s. av. J.-C.), Rome 2012; M. Aberson, M. C. Biella, M. Di Fazio, M. Wullschleger (eds), Entre archéologie et histoire: dialogues sur divers peuples de l’Italie préromaine. E pluribus unum? L’Italie, de la diversité préromaine à l’unité augustéenne, Bern 2014; R. Scopacasa, Ancient Samnium. Settlement, Culture, and Identiy between History and Archaeology, Oxford 2015; A. Naso (ed.), Etruscology, Boston/Berlin 2017; G. D. Farney, G. Bradley (eds), The Peoples of Ancient Italy, Boston/Berlin 2018; M. Di Fazio, I Volsci, un popolo “liquido” nel Lazio antico, Rome 2020; B. Seth, Historical Culture in Iron Age Italy. Archaeology, History, and the Use of the Past, 900– 300 BCE, New York 2023.

[2] See for example: E. Isayev, Migration, Mobility and Place in Ancient Italy, Cambridge 2017; J. Armstrong and S. Cohen (eds), Production, Trade, and Connectivity in Pre-Roman Italy, London 2022.

[3] See e.g.: J. Weidig, Bazzano – ein Gräberfeld bei L’Aquila (Abruzzen). Die Bestattungen des 8. – 5. Jahrhunderts v. Chr., Mainz 2014; G. Bardelli, Il “Circolo delle fibule” di Sirolo-Numana, Mainz 2022, N. Frappiccini, A. Naso (eds), Archeologia Picena, Proceedings of the International Congress (Ancona 2019), Rome 2022.