It is no secret that there is a substantial gap between the layered and complex history of Knossos and the way that current scholarship generally represents the site and its Bronze Age (‘Minoan’) settlement (ca. 3200–1100 BC). Recent publications have embraced the wider temporal significance of the site, such as the thought-provoking and pioneering work by Cadogan and Hatzaki, Knossos: Palace, City, State (2004). But, as James Whitley points out in the preface to Knossos: Myth, History and Archaeology, a handy and accessible resource that could encourage undergraduate students and general readers to appreciate Knossos accurately across its various periods and dimensions has been lacking, a truth borne out by the reactions of Whitley’s students at Cardiff University to his teaching of the site. This short and unpretentious volume largely succeeds in filling this gap in that it is certainly more approachable; the book at times seems to be made up of the notes of Whitley’s three decades of visits to Knossos, which has led to a detailed understanding of the site, as well as his regular teaching on the topic of Aegean archaeology. In addition, through his own personal research he has acquired a remarkable first-hand knowledge of the region and an obvious affection for the history of the island. The book, while occasionally polemical, is written at times with a pleasing informality that is enriched with anecdotes and personal reflections, making it a unique blend of academic insight and personal narrative.
The book is divided into six short but evenly sized sections, preceded by a “Note on the Chronology of the Knossos Sequence”. The first chapter, “Legends and Labyrinths”, begins with a nuanced perspective on the historiography of the site (introducing Evans’ vision juxtaposed to the lesser-known contribution of Minos Kalokairinos) and a vivid description of the modern visitor’s experience of Knossos. It is thus essentially an account of the seamless blend of archaeology, folklore and fiction that has constituted representations of the Minoan past from ancient Greek mythology through Roman to medieval and early modern times. Interesting discussions on the ‘meaning-making’ of myths and their symbiotic relationship with social practices and identity construction illustrate how traditions of tales are created in contemporary understanding. The exploration of the representation of Knossos in medieval cartography, particularly the Mappa Mundi, is particularly effective in illustrating how the mythical elements of Knossos (the labyrinth, the Minotaur, etc.) were integrated into the medieval worldview, reflecting more far-reaching changes in cultural memory and geographical knowledge.
The second chapter, “Inventing the Minoans: Arthur Evans and After”, despite the title, begins with an account of the initial, albeit preliminary, excavations conducted in 1878 by Minos Kalokairinos, a leading citizen of Heraklion; Kalokairinos excavated the West Wing of the palace during the winter of 1878–1879. Although he did not document his activities, the material he unearthed was later presented to Arthur Evans, setting the stage for Evans’ more extensive work. Despite being subsequently overshadowed, Minos Kalokairinos’ contributions were crucial in laying the groundwork for subsequent discoveries. The detailed account of Arthur Evans’ work is thus presented with a thorough yet fair critique recognizing both his contributions to archaeological methods and the controversies surrounding his reconstructions. It offers insights into how early twentieth-century archaeology was both pioneering and flawed, a theme also admirably explored by Cathy Gere in her doctoral thesis at Cambridge, published in 2009.[1] This chapter offers a clear guidance on the annalistic and antiquarian traditions of Knossos and is very instructive in addressing the wider cultural and political contexts that influenced these early excavations. As the author notes, the people seeking historical answers have all been (and will probably always be) influenced by their own beliefs and times. This acknowledgment of subjectivity in archaeological interpretation highlights the evolving nature of our understanding of Knossos and generally underscores the importance of examining the biases that shape historical narratives.
Once the landscape of sources and research traditions has been mapped out, the remainder of the book (Chapters 3–6) is concerned with the history of Knossos across nine millennia, from its earliest human settlement in the Neolithic period (c. 7000 BC) to the present day. A bit of everything is given here, combining evidence from various fields—botany, faunal studies, material culture, written records, radiocarbon dating—reflecting the author’s remarkable ability to synthesize diverse lines of evidence into a coherent narrative.
The strength of this approach is sometimes diminished by a lack of nuance, in particular in relation to some more recent bibliography. Whilst the author discusses relatively recent debates related to, for example, the emergence of the ‘first palace’, at the same time his discussion is undermined by perpetuating some oversimplified ideas of traditional gender-based roles, such as identifying women primarily with textile production and men with bronze work (p. 123).[2] Additionally, some debates remain inadequately addressed; for example, the statement that “the kingdom of Knossos did not extend over the whole island but only its central part” (p. 121)[3] or that the political structure was a replication of the Near Eastern pyramidal hierarchies (p. 126, again p. 129;[4] this diffusionist view is somewhat confusing given the historical revisionism presented in Chapter 2) would benefit from greater clarity given the controversial ideas that underpin these statements. While it is appropriate for the author to express what he thinks in this context, nonetheless, a more balanced approach to these debates would have enriched this impressive work that promises to initiate students into the history and historiography of Knossos. The lack of clarity is also partly due to the limited scope for cross-referencing information, given the brevity of the bibliographical citations infra texto. These citations are generally limited to the original publications in brackets—most of which are quite old—and a handful of endnotes, depriving readers access to decades of further research on these topics. Consequently, the book may be less useful for students who want to understand the sources of the author’s information and the basis for his views.
Despite these issues, Knossos: Myth, History and Archaeology remains an extremely accessible textbook, noteworthy for the completeness of its scholarship, making a much-needed contribution to the study of Knossos on a deeply human scale. Aimed at a wider audience unfamiliar with the topic, this book will serve as good educational reading. It provides an engaging glimpse into how to understand one of the most famous of all archaeological excavations, offering entertaining and informative content even for those who have never visited the site.
Notes
[1] Gere, C. 2009. Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
[2] For a more developed and nuanced account see Landenius Enegren, H.L. 2020. “Women, Men, Girls and Boys: Gendered Textile Work at Late Bronze Age Knossos”. In Textiles and Gender in Antiquity. From the Orient to the Mediterranean, edited by M. Harlow, C. Michel, and L. Quillien, 95–110. London-New York: Bloomsbury.
[3] Driessen, J., and O. Mouthuy. 2022. “The LM II–IIIA2 Kingdom of Knossos as Reflected by Its Linear B Archives”. In One State, Many Worlds. Crete in the Late Minoan II–IIIA2 Early Period, Proceedings of the International Conference Held at Khania, Μεγάλο Αρσενάλι, 21st–23rd November 2019, edited by D’Agata, A.L., L. Girella, E. Papadopoulou, and D.G. Aquini, 71–84. Rome: Quasar.
[4] See, amongst others: Renfrew, C. 2011. The Emergence of Civilisation: The Cyclades and the Aegean in the Third Millennium BC. Oxford: Oxbow Books.