The bibliography on Miletus currently covers hundreds of titles.[1] Yet a comprehensive and up-to-date historical study has been lacking. Krzysztof Nawotka’s volume amply makes up for this shortcoming. Nawotka had ventured into the institutional history of Miletus with his previous study entitled Boule and Demos in Miletus and its Pontic Colonies (Wiesbaden 2014). The objective of this new work is to undertake a broad survey of the history of Miletos between the Classical and Imperial Ages. In the words of the author, this is “the age best elucidated by written evidence, the task curiously spurned by modern scholarship for more than a century” (p. VII). It is therefore a purely historical study, based on written historical sources and epigraphic remains. Though the archaeological data and some topographical aspects of the Ionian polis are not neglected, they are only ever a supplement to the historical study. Naturally, it is difficult to offer an extensive account for a study of such breadth and complexity, so an attempt will be made to highlight the most significant points of the work.
The examination of the history of Miletus here starts at the beginning of the 5th century as the turning point in the life of the city sparked by the Ionian revolt. The study ends with the reign of Diocletian. In the life of the city, the latter is a “somewhat arbitrary” moment (p. 3), since the settlement continues to play a regional role of some importance. However, it is a settlement that gradually moves towards a Christian lifestyle, a phase not included in this volume.
Nawotka also examines the relations of Miletus and its territory (Milesia, the large region south of the city), with the floodplain of the Maeander, and with the Milesian islands. For this insular region, however, the author only refers to events directly involving Miletus. An important section of the study is devoted to the sanctuary of Apollo at Didyma, closely linked to the religious and political history of the polis.
The first chapter covers the events from the destruction of the city by the Persians in 494 BC until Alexander’s conquest. As is well known, epigraphic sources for much of the 5th century are scarce, fragmentary and sometimes difficult to date. Therefore, Nawotka turns to Herodotos and to archaeological data to judge the extent of the destruction suffered by the city. In contrast to Herodotos’ narrative, he emphasises that at least some citizens must have remained in the city: one assumes those favourable to the Persians.[2] The post-Persian situation of Didyma is widely discussed, yet the sources offer no certainty as to the author of any destruction, Darius or Xerxes. The examination of the period after the narrative of Herodotus is conditioned by the substantial lack of historical sources. Thus, the problem of the uninterrupted list of aisymnetai–stephanephoroi (crown bearers) from 525/4 onwards (Milet 122) remains open, despite the certain caesura given by the Persian conquest. The relationship between the ancient city on the Kalabak hill and the orthogonally arranged city on the peninsula is touched upon. The author seems to lean towards a high, pre-destruction dating of the orthogonal layout of the polis, which was later taken up at the time of the post-494 BC reconstruction. However, this is a theory that now seems again put in question by new research.[3] Of uncertain interpretation remain two significant inscriptions, the Banishment Decree (Milet 187) and the rather recent redaction of the Molpoi Decree (Milet 133).[4] For the later period, Nawotka has more historical data to delineate the relations between Miletus and Athens, which indubitably saw the eastern polis in a subordinate position, until her choice in favour of the Peloponnesians towards the end of Peloponnesian War.
Despite the rare historical indications of the control of the polis by the satrapy of Caria, the author inclines towards a view that the oligarchic regime held power, subject to the dynasty of the Hekatomnids. However, a euergetic response does not seem to develop in Miletus as in the other cities of the region.[5] Nawotka devotes considerable space to the events surrounding Alexander, emphasising the importance of Miletus in the Persian military organisation. On the other hand, the clemency shown by Alexander after the conquest and the granting of eleutheria are interpreted as a motif of strong symbolic significance, harking back to the ancient events of the Ionian revolt.
The second chapter encompasses the entire Hellenistic age. Miletus is caught up in the general flow of conflicts between the Macedonian kingdoms, for which eleutheria and autonomy remain fundamental elements of propaganda. There is also evidence of the construction of the divinity of the king, starting with Seleukos I, engineered through the special dynastic relationship with Apollo and his sanctuary at Didyma. The brief influence of the Lagids in Miletus is followed by an unstable period and again thereafter by the strong influence of the Seleucids. The author also emphasises the role of the ruling classes of Miletus in relations with the Macedonian courts, in particular the Seleucids.
The dense web of relations traced by the decrees granting citizenship and the less numerous honorary decrees towards individuals is then examined. Miletus also constructed a network of friendly poleis, particularly involving its ancient colonies, by means of treaties of isopoliteia. A short section of the chapter is devoted to the relationship with the islands, to the affair of the Galatians, and a little more to the conflicts with neighbouring poleis. One can see in this how Miletus is now active only on a regional level, with some ventures towards Crete. A section is devoted to relations with Athens, which were also renewed in the Hellenistic period, as evidenced by the decrees issued by both sides, which testify to the reciprocity of contacts between the two poleis, as well as an intense Milesian emigration, well documented by hundreds of Athenian inscriptions attesting to Milesians living in Athens.
The third chapter is devoted to the close relationship with Rome, beginning with the Attalid question, and also illustrated by the early adoption of the cult of the Goddess Roma in Miletus in 130 BC. At Priene, as elsewhere, the Romans were concerned with settling territorial disputes with neighbouring cities. The ruling class was also the only point of reference for the Roman administration to turn to. After the Civil wars, Miletus regained the favour of Octavian Augustus thanks to one of its most eminent citizens linked to the Julio-Claudian dynasty, C. Iulius Epikrates.
“The ages of glitter” is the description used by Nawotka for the phase in which Miletus developed its monumental architecture. The euergetism of the Milesians was, however, subject to the authority of the emperor, especially with regard to worship. A period of crisis is attributed to the earthquakes of the first half of the first century AD. But thanks to a citizen of Campanian origin, Cn. Vergilius Capito, the construction of the theatre and baths marked the triumph over this moment. If Trajan offered his favours with the construction of the Sacred Way, Nawotka has more reservations about the euergetic role of Hadrian, an emperor nevertheless widely celebrated by the Milesians. The Severans seem to play a minor role in the official consensus.
The third century is examined on the basis of the Gothic raids, though their impact hardly affected Miletus and Didyma directly. However, the second half of the 3rd century marks a clear period of crisis. Finally, only the turning point from polytheism to monotheism is discussed in the section “Advent of Christianity”.
While the first three chapters are more oriented towards a factual (‘événementiel’) history, the fourth chapter attempts to sketch an economic profile of Miletus, despite the paucity of available data. For this, the author relies on tribute (phoroi) and coinage. As to the production of goods, agriculture, fishing, textile production and trade are all examined, and finally trade relations as indicated by ceramic imports are scrutinized.
The fifth chapter deals with the social aspects of the polis, as far as we know about them through literary and philosophical texts. Luxury is a characteristic widely attributed to the Milesians. The foundation myths and the formation of city identity are then examined, consistent with the dynamics that would develop in the Hellenistic and imperial ages in competition with other Greek poleis.
The study concludes with an examination of the development of the cults of Apollo and Artemis, and their mother Leto, in connection with the sanctuary of Didyma, until the end of the 3rd century AD. Ample space is given to the oracle and priestly figures: prophetai, hydrophoroi and tamiai. Finally, the victories at the Didymeia, the Games that were celebrated every four years, are examined.
Nawotka has skilfully condensed a number of highly complex topics into a 227-page volume. He offers an almost complete overview of the history of Miletus after the catastrophe of 494 BC. Each topic of its urban biography arouses further curiosity in the reader, which the author would certainly be able to satisfy. However, it is clear that Nawotka’s intention was to offer a reasoned synthesis of the main historical problems. This goal has been successfully carried out, guided by his extensive knowledge of the available documentary base. Occasional uncertainties are rather due to current vagaries in archaeological knowledge, which thereby requires a renewed critical interest and fresh investigations using up-to-date methods.
Notes
[1] See e.g. the bibliography from the University of Hamburg.
[2] Cf. N. Masturzo, Mileto: alcune note sulla citta e la sua punizione, in F. Curti and A. Parrini (eds.), ΤΑΞΙΔΙΑ. Scritti per Fede Berti, Pisa 2022, pp. 275–277 (esp. 263–279).
[3] See the new research from the University of Hamburg (Ch. Berns and J. Zurbach). Cf. N. Masturzo, Mileto, Athena e la memoria. Considerazioni sulla città e la sua ricostruzione, Pelargòs 4, Rivista di studi sul mondo classico, 2023, pp. 96–99 (esp. 93–107).
[4] See A. Chaniotis, “The Molpoi Inscription: Ritual Prescription or Riddle?”, Kernos 23, 2010, pp. 375–379.
[5] But some elements date the stoa at Lion’s Harbour back to the time of the Hekatomids. See N. Masturzo, Iasos. L’area a sud dell’agorà, II. Il quartiere abitativo, gli edifici pubblici e il santuario (Indagini 1967–1975 e 2007), Giorgio Bretschneider Editore (Archaeologica 184), Roma 2021, pp. 162–163.