[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review]
This important book presents a series of new introductions to rabbinic literature. My review will provide a concise summary of each essay and then discuss the volume as a whole.
Haim Lappin’s contribution presents a concerted historical overview. He analyses what we know, or think we know, about the sages, from their origins to the Middle Ages, against the background of the history of the Jews in their various habitats. Lappin examines the intricate connections between the rabbinic movement, the Pharisees, and Second Temple sects, addressing key societal aspects such as the status of rabbis, Romanization, Sassanian influence, and the roles of the Patriarch and Exilarch. Additionally, he navigates through various beliefs and concepts, including exclusivism and the rabbis’ stance on apocalyptic literature. Lappin confronts the challenges of extracting a historical narrative from the sources, and presents the state of the art in various scholarly debates, such as those on ‘rabbinization’ and the relationship between the Mishna and Roman law. This is an excellent introduction for those who wish to see a snapshot of the research (followed by 12 pages of bibliography! Let me add that the book could be significantly shortened by consolidating all the bibliographies at the end of each chapter, since many references are repeated over and over again). It reveals the vast number of questions and the paucity of answers with relation to the world of the rabbis in the second to sixth centuries CE.
Zvi Novick’s exploration of rabbinic literature’s sources of authority delves into tensions between tradition rooted in ancestral teachings and in scripture, and between divine and customary basis for Halacha. These questions are important for understanding rabbinic culture both in the diachronic sense (their relationship to the Pharisaic paradosis) and in the synchronic one (alternative authority claims, such as apocalypse access to heavenly esoteric knowledge, or priestly Temple related teachings). Novick expands on the question of realistic (the law corresponds to nature) vs. nominalistic concepts of halacha in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Mishnah. The synthetic picture that emerges is of a Halacha that is unprecedentedly meticulous and at the same time unprecedentedly human. The combination can be seen in the numerous unresolved disputes on the details of Halacha as well as in the many legal fictions invented by the rabbis. Novick concludes that the rabbis effectively adopted (or reclaimed) Jesus’ description of the Pharisees (Mark 7:6-8) as preferring human tradition over God’s word.
Christine Hayes uses intertextuality as an analytical tool to examine rabbinic traditions and compositions. Beginning in the 1980s, following the studies of Kristeva and Derrida, new literary tools were used to rethink the complex relationships between texts, beyond the classic source and redaction criticisms. Hayes uses the concept of “intertextuality” in both its old, philological sense, and in the new sense of the never-ending play between texts. She examines the relationship between various Tannaitic compositions, devoting many pages to a detailed summary of research, including long quotations, both of classic Wissenschaft des Judentums scholars and their philological historical heirs (particularly useful for scholars with less access to Hebrew research) and of new literary and hermeneutic studies. A central place is given to Susan Hendelman’s The Slayers of Moses, the first monograph to examine midrashic intertextuality with post-structuralist tools.
Alyssa Gray extends the application of intertextual tools to Amoraic literature, exploring the Talmuds and Agadic midrashim. “Scholarly sensitivity to intertextuality” she writes “requires taking additional steps beyond a historical finding about which text is anterior or posterior” (226). These “additional steps” are indeed the core of the contribution of the present volume to the previous “the Literature of the Sages” volumes (see below). Like Hayes, Gray devotes many pages to the comparative study of the Tannaitic texts and the baraytot in both Talmuds, which enables an intertextual comparison between the two researchers’ positions.
Meir Ben Shahar, Tal Ilan and Vered Noam illuminate the multifaceted links of rabbinic literature to Second Temple (aka post-biblical, intertestamental, apocryphal) compositions, including Jewish Hellenistic literature, Apocalypses, the Gospels, sectarian literature, and Josephus (the authors wrote a superb two-volume monograph on the traditions shared by Josephus and the rabbis). Their exploration challenges the perception of a complete disregard for these compositions in rabbinic literature, revealing a deliberate ideological decision rather than unfamiliarity. The well-known disregard (with the exception of the book of Ben Sira) is an ideological decision to allow only one book (or, physically speaking, one group of books) at the study house, the Bible, while rejecting all others. The work of the rabbis themselves is therefore left deliberately oral.
The authors provide a comprehensive examination of explicit references, allusions, and speculative connections, shedding light on the intricate network of ties beneath the surface. In many cases it is impossible to know whether the similarity reflects familiarity with a specific work or with traditions in it. While the chapter’s title speaks of “Second Temple Literature” the authors treat different compositions differently. And indeed the term “Second Temple literature” is a misnomer in this context, for there is no real reason to join together Apocalyptic, sectarian and Hellenistic texts. Even with regard to literature written in Greek, we have no reason to assume that the Septuagint, the Gospels and Josephus were considered by the rabbis (those who knew them or of them) as belonging to one category.
The second part deals with influences from east and west, with contributors addressing the presence of Greek culture, political contexts within the Roman Empire, and interactions with Eastern Christian traditions as well as Babylonian affinities.
Richard Hidary addresses the influence of Greek culture in Roman Palestine and in Babylonia, a subject of broader significance beyond the realm of the rabbis, for, as he aptly notes, “few ancient sources offer detailed insights into the experiences of provincial minorities and their interactions with the Empire as do Jewish writings from late antiquity” (315). Hidary rightfully underscores the importance of rhetoric, a foundational aspect of Hellenistic education. The influence of Greek rhetorical exercises is discernible, as observed already by Henry Fischel, in the many rabbinic Chreia-like stories. The article presents many fascinating parallels, in both content and form (including the very dialogic structure of the Talmudic sugiot) that show the depth of overt and covert penetration of Greek culture. Since in rabbinic literature connections to non-rabbinic material is usually covert, scholarly speculations are unavoidable, but one must always remember that similarities are sometimes just similarities.
Katell Berthellot supplements Hidari’s study by bringing in the political context. “The Jews living in the Roman Empire”, she justly stresses, “were confronted by not only a cultural world that can be broadly characterized as ‘Greco-Roman’, but also specific Roman forms of domination, imperial ideology, and self-definition as a people” (344). In her article (an abridgment of her book-length study Jews and Their Roman Rivals), she moves between different avenues of Roman ideology: nationalism, army, law, and citizenship, and reveals a complex combination of adoption, accommodation and resistance (described by post-colonialist scholars as “mimicry”.)
Michal Bar-Asher Siegal examines the interplay between Eastern Christian traditions in Greek and Syriac and the Babylonian Talmud (Bavli). Explicit references to Christianity are found only in the Bavli, where Christians like Jews constituted a religious minority. Beyond explicit references, Bar-Asher Siegal reveals affinity in different traditions, both those found only in the Bavli, and those that are adapted in it (as for example in the story of Rabbi Shimon and his son in the cave). Her analysis extends to Babylonian narratives of heretics (‘minim’), which she reads as rabbinic reflections of inner Christian polemics. This exploration raises grave methodological questions about the transition and translation of traditions from the West to the East, addressed by Bar-Asher Siegal in her introduction.
Yishai Kiel presents the advancements made by the latest generation of scholars studying the Babylonian affinities of the Bavli, particularly by Jacob Elman and his students. Acknowledging the limited knowledge of the actual interactions between the rabbis and Zoroastrian religion and Sassanian culture, Kiel predominantly relies on textual analysis. The study commences with explicit references to Persian culture—addressing sexual customs, Zoroastrian priests, and Persian law—before moving to broader comparisons. These encompass heightened references to intention and the inner world in both Talmudic and Sassanian law, shared concepts of holiness and chastity, and the love of taxonomies characterizing both the Bavli and Zoroastrianism. While these comparisons prove captivating, Kiel candidly admits the scarcity of evidence regarding the influence of the Persian world on the Bavli compared to the prevalence of Hellenism in Palestinian literature. Additionally, the temporal gap between the Sassanian texts and the era of the Bavli’s sages introduces an element of speculation. Notably, comparisons within the context of aggada, particularly concerning demonology, offer more solid ground.
Kiel’s exploration extends to religious minorities, notably Christianity, with a focus on scholastic culture, martyrology, biblical interpretation, and Jewish and Syrian law codes. While individual examples may be subject to debate, the wealth of material and bibliography serves as a valuable resource for those seeking an understanding of the current state of the field.
The third part deals with halacha and aggada:
Steven Fraade and Moshe Simon Shoshan examine the relationship between halacha and aggada in Tanaitic literature. While these are indigenous terms that describe in rabbinic literature different intellectual fields, the sources themselves combine them seamlessly. In the Tannaitic Midrashim, approximately 30% of the content is aggadic, interpreting narrative sections in the Torah. The Tosefta, too, features substantial portions of aggada interspersed among legal material, such as discussions on “measure for measure” and historical deterioration in tractate Sotah, the mystical encounter in tractate Hagiga, and narratives involving Christians in tractate Hullin. The focal point of the article is the Mishnah and the Tosefta, with a noteworthy omission of the Tannaitic midrash. It reveals a nuanced interplay between Halacha and Aggada, showcasing a blend of distinction, dependence, and hierarchy. Simon Shoshan briefly highlights, as detailed in his book Stories of the Law, that the Mishnah, unlike the Tosefta, lacks an independent space for aggada (except Mishna Avot, which receives here well-deserved attention). But it does have a lot of room for narratives, employing various levels of narrativity to comprehensively present the scope of halacha.
Jeffrey Rubinstein, Jonathan Feintoch, and Jane Kanrak’s article unfolds in three distinct segments. The initial part critically evaluates current research on the relationship between halacha and aggada, primarily focusing on challenging the dichotomous distinction between them—an exploration consistent with themes from the preceding chapter. The second section navigates the types of aggada in the Talmud, emphasizing the diverse contexts in which it emerges within the sugiot. This emphasis on contextualization indeed occupies a pivotal role in the evolving study of aggada in the Bavli. The third and final part scrutinizes the role of Halacha in Aggadic Midrashim. Notably, this, alongside a section in Gray’s article, constitutes the sole examination of these significant compositions. The exclusive treatment of the entire corpus of Amoraic Aggadic midrashim within the realms of intertextual (Gray) and Halachic (Krank) affinities underscores both the strengths of the present volume in its concentration on novel perspectives and its inherent limitations.
The book ends with Shai Secunda’s short and useful overview of the research tools for studying rabbinic literature, including introductions, translations, lexicons and digital tools.
Rabbinic literature holds a profound significance for classicists (its significance to early Christianity does not need emphasis). It presents a rich provincial culture of law and exegesis under the empires, a narrative absent in other minority cultures of this era. But accessing this compressed and often idiosyncratic literature is riddled with challenges. Hence, any study that unlocks its complexities in an accessible and inviting manner is a noteworthy development.
The majority of the articles serve as concise summaries of monographs by the aforementioned scholars, effectively capturing the key theses. Maintaining a commendable equilibrium between primary sources and the current state of research, these articles meticulously distinguish between Babylonia and Roman Palestine, as well as between Tanaim and Amoraim.
It is essential to recognize, though, that this book is not geared toward updating the prior “Literature of the Sages” volumes (1987 and 2006) in the Compendia rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum series. Rather, it seeks to complement them with fresh perspectives, as highlighted in Hayes’ introduction. Therefore, it should be approached as a companion to these volumes, along with other introductory works such as the revised Schürer and Cambridge introductions to Jewish literature. While introducing novel approaches, this volume does not replace the foundational historical philological methods, which remain the cornerstone of Talmudic research.
Authors and Titles
Setting the Stage
Introduction (Christine Hayes)
- The Rabbis of History and Historiography (Hayim Lapin)
- Tradition, Scripture, Law, and Authority (Tzvi Novick)
Part 1 Intertextuality
- Intertextuality and Tannaic Literature: A History (Christine Hayes)
- Intertextuality and Amoraic Literature (Alyssa M. Gray)
- Second Temple Literature and the Rabbinic Library (Meir Ben-Shahar, Tal Ilan, and Vered Noam)
Part 2 East and West
- The Greco-Roman West and Rabbinic Literature in Palestine and Babylonia (Richard Hidary)
- The Impact of ‘Pagan’ Rome (Katell Berthelot)
- From West to East: Christian Traditions and the Babylonian Talmud (Michal Bar-Asher Siegal)
- The Sasanian East and the Babylonian Talmud (Yishai Kiel)
Part 3 Halakha and Aggada
- Halakha and Aggada in Tannaic Sources (Steven D. Fraade and Moshe Simon-Shoshan)
- Halakha and Aggada in Post-Tannaic Literature (Jeffrey L. Rubenstein, Yonatan Feintuch, and Jane L. Kanarek)
- Resources for the Critical Study of Rabbinic Literature in the Twenty-First Century (Shai Secunda)