The introduction reveals that the author’s motivation for writing the book stems from his own experience. Framing the work as a journey of self-healing, he seeks to trace the historical origins of homophobia. Although the term queer in the title suggests an inclusive approach, the discussion is, in practice, largely centered on male homosexuality. The author acknowledges that queer women and transgender people historically exercised far less control over their lives than queer men and therefore receive limited attention in the surviving evidence. He nevertheless states that he has included available evidence relating to these groups, while admitting that some material may have been overlooked.
One of the book’s major achievements is its dismantling of modern misconceptions about ancient homosexuality. In “The Myth of Greek Sex,” the author challenges the view that male same-sex practices primarily served to reinforce masculine virility or that relationships between men were exclusively sexual rather than romantic. He also questions the widespread assumption that the word boy in ancient sources referring to same-sex attraction necessarily denotes an adolescent. Instead, he argues convincingly that it could refer to slaves or to men occupying a subordinate position within a same-sex relationship. The author also addresses a darker aspect of male same-sex relations—namely, rape—which he interprets not as evidence of same-sex desire but rather as an expression of domination and social stigmatization of homosexuality. The chapter proceeds with a survey of several Greek cities and their prominent queer stars: Theognis in Megara, Sappho and possibly Alcaeus on Lesbos, Heracles in Boeotia, and Solon in Athens. According to the author, the expression of queer desire flourished in cities characterized either by prosperity and relatively limited social inequality or by intense political conflict accompanied by efforts to curb economic disparities. Sparta constituted an exception: Lycurgus promoted both economic austerity and sexual restraint as political ideals and prohibited male homosexuality altogether.
The second chapter, “How Money Corrupted Love”, opens with the story of the celebrated pair Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whose relationship contributed to the overthrow of the tyrant Hippias and ultimately to the establishment of Athenian democracy. The discussion then turns to male-on-male rape and its derogatory social connotations. The author rightly emphasizes that such accounts should in no way be interpreted as evidence of tolerance towards homosexuality; on the contrary, they reflect the social condemnation and humiliation associated with same-sex acts. Athens seems to display signs of tolerance towards male homosexuality, as evidenced by Attic vase paintings (6th century BCE–ca. 450 BCE) depicting homoerotic scenes and by Aeschylus’ Myrmidons. However, these signs disappear after 450 BCE. Harry Tanner attributes this shift primarily to the populist politician Cleon, whose promotion of civic self-restraint allegedly fostered growing intolerance towards homosexuality and contributed to the persecution of homosexuals. At this point, a narrative concerning a female character briefly interrupts the book’s predominantly male-centered perspective. Galatea, seeking to save her daughter from her husband’s wish to expose any female child at birth, raises the girl as a boy. As the child grows older, Galatea can no longer conceal her biological sex and prays that her daughter be transformed into a man—a wish that is miraculously granted. According to the author, this story demonstrates that the Greeks were familiar with the concept of gender fluidity. This interpretation, however, appears to project a modern concept onto the ancient world. Rather than illustrating gender fluidity, the narrative ultimately reinforces the gender binary: the miraculous transformation resolves the tension precisely by converting one sex into the other, not by challenging or transcending the binary itself. The chapter concludes by arguing that Cleon’s anti-gay agenda and the increasingly homophobic climate in Athens prompted prominent queers such as Euripides and Agathon to seek refuge at the court of King Archelaus of Macedon, portrayed by the author as a comparatively welcoming environment for queer individuals. The chapter Queer as Macedon further develops this theme by depicting the Macedonian court during the reign of Philip II as relatively tolerant of same-sex relationships. Returning to Athens, the author also examines the well-known exchange of homophobic invective between Demosthenes and Aeschines, interpreting it as further evidence of homophobia in Classical Athens.
In Plato and the Philosophy of the Closet the author examines Plato’s discomfort with homosexual desire, speculating that he may have suffered from internalized homophobia. In Alexander the Straight? Tanner discusses Aristotle’s views on homosexuality. Despite his generally homophobic stance, he acknowledges that some cases of same-sex attraction are rooted not in a lack of self-control but in an innate homosexual disposition. The author then reviews the ancient testimonies concerning Alexander’s attraction to men, arguing that his homosexuality was not limited to sexual relations with men of his own age but also involved romantic attachment. The chapter continues with a discussion of Diogenes the Cynic’s attitude toward homosexuality and that of Zeno, the founder of Stoicism, who may himself have been attracted to men but nevertheless advocated strict self-discipline. Here the author could have cited Philodemus, De Stoicis, PHerc. 399, col. XVIII, 11-15,[1] where an important testimony concerning the homosexual practices of Diogenes and Zeno is most probably preserved: they sexually abused both the men who were in love with them and those who rejected them.
In Love in the Time of the Old Testament the author explores evidence for male homosexuality in the ancient Near East. Middle Assyrian legislation punished male homosexual acts severely, a phenomenon that Tanner associates with the growing wealth inequality of the period. He then examines the passages in Leviticus concerning the prohibition of homosexuality. The stories of Sodom, Ham, and Noah are also discussed. Their association with homophobia depends more on their later interpretation than on the biblical texts themselves. By contrast, the story of Jonathan and David is presented as one of romantic love between men, comparable to the relationship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the eponymous epic. In ancient Egypt, same-sex activity is shown to have been closely associated with rape and the assertion of masculine dominance.
The following chapter explores homophobia in Rome, where male homosexuality was perceived as a serious threat to the supreme ideal of masculinity. In The First Christians, Tanner emphasizes the rise of debt and extreme wealth inequality in Alexandria and Palestine before turning to a discussion of Jesus’ sexuality and Saint Paul’s alleged condemnation of homosexuality. In The Birth of Modern Homophobia, Tanner argues that Augustine’s reinterpretations further strengthened the ideal of sexual self-restraint within Western theology. Although homosexuals were persecuted in Byzantium, this did not prevent the flourishing of queer life within certain religious circles.
As noted in the introduction to this review, references to female same-sex relationships and transgender people are relatively limited. Apart from Sappho, Tanner refers briefly to the story of the notorious “Dildo of Alexandria”, which illustrates male anxiety about female homosexual practices; the gender-nonconforming individuals associated with a Babylonian temple; the harem of eunuchs at Herod’s court; Lucian’s satirical account of wealthy lesbians attempting to seduce a heterosexual woman into a threesome; and the story of a transgender monk in Byzantium.[2] Somewhat surprisingly, however, the author overlooks Sandra Boehringer’s important book, recently translated into English.[3] As evidence for female homosexuality the erotic spells preserved in Greek magical papyri could have been cited.[4] Modern queer readers delight in discovering their ancient predecessors. It is unfortunate that transgender people, lesbians and bisexual women have to make do with a few crumbs from the ancient world. Silenced once in antiquity, silenced twice in modern scholarship.
A recurring theme throughout the book is the correlation between the rise of homophobia and periods of pronounced wealth inequality in the Greek world, the ancient Near East, and Rome. Tanner argues that the ideal of self-restraint was employed by politicians, philosophers, and religious authorities alike as a means of controlling homosexual desire and preventing the perceived inversion of traditional gender roles. I think, however, that economic factors alone are insufficient to explain the origins of homophobia, which is a far more complex phenomenon. Although we do not know precisely when patriarchy became the dominant social system, it is clear that both ancient Greece and Rome were patriarchal societies. One could argue that, as in the modern world, homophobia was closely intertwined with misogyny—that is, extreme hostility toward women and everything perceived as feminine. In a book devoted to the exploration of homophobia, one would therefore expect the status and social position of women to be closely examined in relation to this phenomenon.
In a book of this nature, the decision to place the notes at the end is entirely appropriate. They are followed by a comprehensive bibliography and a useful general index. More surprising, however, is the absence of illustrations, which would have enriched a work of this kind. All in all, the book is a welcome contribution to the study of ancient homosexuality.
Notes
[1] Zago, G. (2014), ‘Intorno a un passo del “De Stoicis di Filodemo” (PHerc. 399, col. XVIII, 11-15 Dorandi)’, ZPE 192, 89-92.
[2] It would be better to avoid labelling the monk as a trans man, since they could also be a masculine-presenting or a non-binary lesbian in modern terms.
[3] Boehringer, S. (2021), Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome, transl. by A. Preger, London-New York.
[4] Faraone, Ch. A. (1999), Ancient Greek Love Magic, Cambridge-New York, 148-149.