In Revivals of Classical Drama in Greece and Spain (1860s–1970s), Vasileios Balaskas presents an impressive collection of archival material to demonstrate the political significance of revivals of ancient plays. Like other influential discussions of such productions in specific cultural and geographical contexts, this book demonstrates the enduring impact of ancient drama in a contemporary context.[1] Unlike much previous scholarship, Balaskas does not trace the transfiguration of the ancient text and the aesthetic aspects of individual productions nor does he focus on a single geographical area or demographic group with a distinct cultural identity that is reflected in a common relationship to classical antiquity. Rather, he uses archival evidence to analyze the institutional dimension of revivals in Greece and Spain, two countries with parallel historical trajectories but different relationships to the classical heritage. The final product is an invaluable collection of primary and archival evidence, organized and interpreted in a way that demonstrates how these revivals shape and are shaped by the political realities of their time. The book is organized chronologically, tracing five phases in the development of Greek and Spanish theater across five chapters. It offers comprehensive overviews of primary evidence, tied together in concise introductions and conclusions, and it is characterized by impressive structural clarity and a high degree of accessibility. All necessary historical context is provided, theoretical concepts are clearly explained, and the main arguments of each chapter are effectively summarized. Although the line of argumentation is not always explicitly sustained throughout, the evidence and the manner in which it is organized speak for themselves.
Chapter 1 approaches ancient theaters as lieux de mémoire that participate in the formation of collective identities. It examines the role of such sites in the revival of ancient drama, as it relates to the emergence of archaeology, European modernity, and the construction of national heritage. Beginning with Chorégies d’Orange in 1869 in France and continuing with the festivals of Syracuse and Fiesole in the 1910s, Balaskas traces the early revival of ancient drama in Europe and examines how initiatives in France and Italy informed similar revivals in Greece and Spain. By bringing together Greece, where antiquity constituted a central component of national identity, and Spain, where such identification was largely absent, the chapter shows how the past can be used to construct collective identities in different contexts. The chapter also discusses how regional politics shaped revivals of ancient drama and the broader dynamics between urban centers and the countryside.
In Chapter 2, the comparative framework becomes more concrete as Greece and Spain develop along parallel trajectories. During the late 1920s and the 1930s, both countries used ancient theaters for reconstructing national identity, as they recovered from national humiliation. On the Greek side, the chapter focuses on the Delphic Festivals and Eva Palmer’s and Angelos Sikelianos’ efforts to foreground connections between Greek antiquity and folklore. It also discusses Ioannis Metaxas’ dictatorship, which imposed censorship and promoted large-scale national spectacles (largely inspired by the Delphic Festivals), incorporating ancient drama into its broader political agenda of reviving classical glory. On the Spanish side, the Theater of Mérida became a political site, hosting a state-sponsored performance of Seneca’s Medea, which Balaskas situates within the ideals of Republican Spain and the feminist advances in the country. Balaskas persuasively argues that both festivals were influenced by the festival of Syracuse, while also demonstrating that the comparatively smaller influence of such festivals in Spain is related to the country’s different relationship to antiquity. In both cases, the chapter focuses on the participation and exoticization of local communities during large-scale productions at ancient theaters, as they relate to the perception of such revivals as national heritage and the clash between regional relationships with the past and institutional archaeology.
Chapter 3 examines how German Nazism in Greece and Italian fascism in Spain promoted classical theater as a national spectacle to consolidate their authority. On the Spanish side, a striking example of this strategy is the Theater of Mérida being used to evoke the aesthetics of the Roman Empire, promoting the imposed identity of Spanish Romanità in accordance with Italian fascism. Equally interesting is the 1942 production of Strauss’ Elektra, staged by the National Theater of Greece in partnership with the German Embassy in Athens, which Balaskas presents as an example of German authorities appropriating Greek theater to legitimize their authority. Transitioning to the post-war period, the chapter examines Spain’s shift toward a conservative political order that promoted a National Catholic identity, and the dual role of ancient drama as both a state-sponsored instrument of ideological “re-education” and a form of resistance by prisoners on the civil war-era Greek prison islands.
Chapter 4 explores revivals in relation to the touristic development and the financial recovery that gave rise to high-profile festivals in the 1950s in both Greece and Spain. Within this shared trajectory, each country has a different relationship to archaeological tourism, as in Greece the ancient past, which is an essential part of national identity, is foregrounded to achieve integration in the West, while in Spain antiquities are used as mechanisms to unify the population and embrace European artistic developments. In regard to post-Civil War Spain, Balaskas discusses a new strain of nationalism that links classical culture to the Spanish Golden Age, leading to developments such as the propagandistic Festivales de España and the renewed repertoire of the festival of Mérida. On the Greek side, the chapter focuses on the touristic character of festivals in connection with Western funding, as well as the inauguration of the Epidaurus Festival. The inclusion of comedies in the repertoire of the National Theater is a noteworthy, if somewhat underexplored, development. Another perhaps underdeveloped point given the context of the book is the direct interaction between the two countries’ dramatic traditions, such as the royal wedding between the Spanish prince Juan Carlos and the Greek princess Sophia, which stimulated Spanish press interest in ancient Greece, and Greek director Dimitris Rodiris’ production at the festival of Mérida. The chapter discusses the influence of prominent directors and actors in both countries, including Rodiris, Hourmouzios, Minotis, Paxinou, Koun, and Callas in Greece, and Tamayo, Sánchez Castañer, and Espert in Spain. It concludes with an overview of regional festivals in the two growing nations.
Finally, Chapter 5 traces the development of theater within the parallel political trajectories of the two nations during and after the Greek military junta and Franco’s dictatorship in Spain. In Greece, classical theater became tied to a nationalist vision, whereas in Spain the regime promoted the arts as a means of fostering dialogue with the democratic opposition. Balaskas interprets the developments of revivals through the lens of the “saturation of spectacle” and discusses the strategies developed in each country in response. For instance, in Spain new genres and companies are introduced to the festival of Mérida, while in Greece a prolonged emphasis on tradition eventually gave way to alternative approaches and companies, ultimately challenging the National Theater’s long-standing exclusivity over Epidaurus. Under the junta, preventive censorship of translations, performances, and costumes resulted in self-censorship. These tensions took institutional form in the creation of the Organization of State Theaters of Greece, intended to centralize control over artistic production. In Spain, by contrast, the festival of Mérida embraced renewal and experimentation, in line with broader cultural policies that combined theater and music and sought to attract foreign tourism. The growing role of theatrical broadcasting is another noteworthy aspect of this period. As the chapter ends, it points towards the renewal that falls outside the book’s chronological scope.
As the author states, his main contribution lies in the extensive use of archival material to conduct a comparative study. In that, the book certainly succeeds. It draws on a remarkably rich body of sources, varying from newspaper articles, reviews, archaeological reports, administrative documents, personal correspondence, interviews, and promotional material, meticulously collected from a variety of institutions and efficiently organized. The comparative aspect of the study, which constitutes part of its originality, is also valuable: the two countries’ differing relationships with antiquity function as useful counterexamples that illuminate different ways in which collective identities can be constructed, while their parallel trajectories highlight how socio-political developments impact theatrical production even within different cultural contexts.
An equally significant aspect of the book’s contribution, I would argue, lies in the arguments it does not explicitly pursue. Balaskas himself identifies areas for future research, including the history of revivals in other countries with ancient theaters. Such work would indeed offer valuable perspectives on the book’s central question: in what ways can ancient drama, performed in ancient theaters, be mobilized for political purposes. At the same time, this study presents fascinating case studies that, if considered together, could illuminate different aspects of theater, tragedy, and reception. The book itself does not draw out these questions since doing so would fall outside its stated scope. It is, however, a testament to its value that this evidence could serve as a starting point for future discussions, which would be of interest to diverse scholarly audiences.
For instance, as noted above, Chapter 3 discusses the case of Strauss’ Elektra being performed in German-occupied Athens, framing it as an attempt by the German authorities to present themselves as the natural inheritors of classical antiquity and establish intellectual authority over the country they physically occupied. Balaskas states that “for the Greek actors and actresses who participated, this was a difficult project, but it paid for their basic necessities of life during one of the most challenging periods of the occupation.” The same chapter presents the equally fascinating example of Antigone being staged at the Greek prison islands during the Civil War. Although the production was endorsed by the camp authorities, framing the heroine as a symbol of anarchy, it simultaneously resonated with the moral convictions of the inmates who performed it. Thus, Antigone acquired a dual identity as a state-sponsored attempt at ideological “re-education” and an act of prisoners’ resistance. In both cases, plays are produced by authorities and performed by members of the very communities these authorities oppress. Could the case study of the prison islands shed light on the experiences of Greek actors in Strauss’ Elektra? More broadly, might these events point to a larger argument about the inherent power actors hold, even within state-controlled frameworks?
Conversely, Chapter 4 outlines the significance of international funding programs in the revivals of ancient drama, suggesting that Greek theatrical festivals that were central to Modern Greek identity were the product of Western support. Chapter 3 discusses Theotokas’ effort to create a native classical drama tradition, moving away from westernized performances, and Rodiris’ unrealized international tour, aiming to promote Greek drama as the native spectacle of Greece. Considered together, and perhaps in relation to Strauss’ Elektra, these cases raise questions about the tensions between different forms of Western support and appropriation and local identities.
At the same time, the role especially of the play Antigone is raised: in addition to detailing the dual role of the play in the prison islands, the book mentions José María Pemán’s Antigone, which portrayed the heroine as a martyr sacrificing herself for her family, in the context of Franco’s National Catholicism. Chapter 5 turns to Alonso’s Antigone, which explicitly criticized abuse of power. Taken together, these adaptations raise questions about the features of this particular ancient text that make it especially adaptable to contradictory interpretations in both Greece and Spain.
All told, this book is an important resource for a wide range of audiences. The argument it advances renders it valuable for readers interested in the cultural history of Greece and Spain, the history and political power of theater, the reception of drama, and the influence of antiquity on the modern world. At the same time, the rich archival material it presents supports multiple lines of inquiry, making it equally relevant for scholars and students in Classics, ancient drama, and Performance Studies.
Notes
[1] Notable examples include Pauline Donizeau, Yassaman Khajehi and Daniela Potenza eds, Greek Tragedy and the Middle East: Chasing the Myth, Classical Diaspora (Bloomsbury Academic, 2024) [BMCR 2025.05.04]; Rosa Andújar and Konstantinos P. Nikoloutsos, eds., Greeks and Romans on the Latin American Stage, Bloomsbury Studies in Classical Reception (Bloomsbury Academic, 2021) [BMCR 2021.04.02]; Helene P. Foley, Reimagining Greek Tragedy on the American Stage, Sather Classical Lectures, volume 70 (University of California Press, 2012).