A particular genre of Greek book has become increasingly available over the past 15 years, a fact that speaks to demand. Variously referred to as a “textbook”, “school edition,” or “reader”—nomenclature varies—they have been produced by Geoffrey Steadman, C.T. Hadavas, and the authors under review, Evan Hayes and Stephen Nimis. Their latest offering is Lucian’s The Sale of Lives (Βίων Πρᾶσις, aka Vitarum Auctio) and its companion The Dead Come to Life or the Fishermen (Ἀναβιοῦντες ἢ Ἁλιεύς, aka Revivescentes sive Piscator). The team, Faenum Publishing, have been producing print-on-demand (POD) editions of non-classical Greek prose since 2010, thus differentiating themselves from Steadman, who pioneered this publishing model but with a more classically-oriented output.[1] The aim is to make ancient literature more accessible to an audience of intermediate students, and their stellar efforts have definitively extended the parameters of readily-available Greek literature. Sale is a worthy addition to the existing line up.[2]
The “reader”—the authors’ term indicates their purpose—includes a brief, useful introduction to the narratives and to Lucian and suggestions for further reading. Nimis and Hayes also explain how to use the book and their glossing and commentary conventions (pp. xv–xvi). The text is a digitised version of that by A. Harmon (Harvard 1921) and, as is characteristic of these readers, includes no textual apparatus. The defining feature of these readers is the layout: each page is divided into three sections: at the top is the Greek text, presented in a large, clear, and legible font, with margins for annotations; the middle, separated by a double line, comprises running vocabulary in alphabetical order; finally, separated by a single line, the bottom section comprises grammatical notes and translational help. At the end appears a list of verbs featuring “some irregularity in conjugation,” which includes basic translation, principal parts, as well as compound forms (pp. 157–168). Finally, there is a short list of frequently occurring vocabulary that is either not glossed or not at each occurrence in the text (p. 173–175).
Glosses are offered for most words and these are generally accurate.[3] The efficiencies of POD and the sacrifice of comprehensive editing or revision allow for infelicities but Nimis and Hayes welcome corrections—a sort of crowd-sourcing strategy, and a successful one—which can be easily included in future editions.[4] The commentary is firmly grammatical, offering no literary, rhetorical, or textual discussion. Smyth’s terminology is used, along with occasional references to this grammar, but more (as in Hadavas’ edition) would be useful.[5] Here are some examples (note the authors’ helpful italicisations):
For nouns, Nimis and Hayes identify case and case function or offer basic explanation of the case, followed by a gloss. E.g., p. 21–22:
παιδείας: ‘gen. after δεήσει, there will be no need of education’
δυ᾽ ὀβολῶν: gen. of price, ‘for two obols’ the smallest amount for any lifestyle
τῆς ἀρχῆς: “‘dissolution of the empire’, i.e. of self-control, which according to Stoics was comprised by human company”
With respect to this last entry, a reference to Smyth on subject and objective genitives (§1328–1335) would be welcome.
For verb forms, more information is provided than in earlier readers. Thus, imperative forms are identified according to person, tense, mood, and number; tricky indicatives, as well as subjunctives, and optatives are glossed and identified with respect to tense and grammatical construction. Again from p. 22:
παρῆ̦: pres. subj. of πάρ-ειμι also in future more vivid protasis, “if only shamelessness is present”
μετελθεῖν: aor. inf. epexegetic after εὐχερῆ, “easy to follow”
Further syntactical help is provided in boxes at timely moments; a paradigm, for instance, of present and aorist imperatives (p. 17); meanings of αὐτός (p. 33); a summary of indirect statements (p. 44), etc.[6] Help with participles appears three times, including how to translate aorist participles.[7] I have a small issue with the offered “having verbed;” it is helpful for learners to differentiate aorist and perfect forms, thus the aorist participle can be rendered (initially) “upon verbing.”[8] As Nimis and Hayes note, it is idiomatic to translate circumstantial participles as indicatives, but why not point students to subordination, as well as the force of the participle (or at least to provide a reference to Smyth)? An index and cross-referencing would also be helpful.[9] These are suggestions, not gripes, as the utility of the grammatical notes is outstanding and speaks to the authors’ painstaking work.
Other pertinent information is also provided; for instance, on verbs of buying and selling (pp. 5, 10); on philosophers,[10] Stoic logical terms and paradoxes (p. 39, 43); the Peripatetic school (p. 51); Sceptics (p. 53); the characteristics of philosophers (p. 82), and the like.
For the remainder of this review, I turn to pedagogy, including how these readers serve the needs of contemporary Greek learners. The format was devised by Pharr, first appearing in his 1964 edition of Aeneid I–VI, and alleged to have ‘revolutionised Latin textbooks.’[11] It is worth reading Pharr’s 1962 manifesto on ‘Visible Vocabulary,’ summarised as follows:[12]
- Students read more efficiently, more quickly;
- Classical literature can be enjoyed earlier;
- Glosses reduce errors in vocabulary selection and comprehension;
- Simplifying vocabulary allows learners to focus on, and reinforce grammar skills, through extensive reading;
- Repeated exposure in context aids retention and understanding of vocabulary;
- Glosses save time spent looking up words, allowing more focus on comprehension;
- The “visible vocabulary” system surpasses parallel translations by promoting independent problem-solving and reducing reliance on translations for understanding.
Points 1-4 are logical. Contemporary scholarship supports point 5: running vocabulary removes the imperative to learn words as they are encountered, yet research shows that reading in the target language, rendered comprehensible with glosses, enables vocabulary acquisition.[13] Points 6 and 7 will resonate with many. Learners read without pausing every five seconds to nut out a definition or grammatical construction, thereby keeping sense and narrative in mind. As language learners know, nothing kills comprehension more quickly than stop-start translation. The alternative, of working through a text with facing translation (e.g., a Loeb or Aris & Phillips) or using Perseus (offering the convenience of the hyperlink and potential for dictionary work) are helpful in the short term but inhibits the struggle that makes learning happen. My own students say they like these readers precisely because of the absence of a translation; they are challenging enough to enable difficult learning but without causing the frustration that sounds the death knell for motivation and/or interest (and obviate any benefit from the quick intake of Greek). The benefits of manageable input are clear;[14] thus, for instance, learners are encouraged to read left to right, rather than finding the verb and decoding etc.[15] It is true that extensive notes and glosses facilitate comprehension at the expense of abstract language knowledge and any benefits conferred by micro-translating and/or performing ‘intensive’ reading. However, readers suit learners ready to move on to extended narratives but not necessarily wishing to study the text or its language, interpretation, etc. Learners develop confidence, by reading entire paragraphs and even entire books, acquiring implicit familiarity with language structures and vocabulary, perhaps even fluency. And of course, the format facilitates enjoyment of the story, in turn motivating further learning.
As Christine Nuttall wrote decades ago, “The best way to prove your knowledge of a foreign language is to go and live among its speakers. The next best way is to read extensively in it.”[16] There is little ‘synthetic’ literature of the sort the Latin learning community enjoys (e.g., graded novellas), so these readers fill a gap, enabling students, particularly those at an earlier learning stage, to experience continuous Greek prose. And real Greek prose at that, which many will find desirable, particularly if they have scholarly aims (rather than communicative).
So, when and where to use these for productive learning? Sale is a great option for those wanting to read independently, i.e., outside the classroom. Nimis and Hayes recommend, “read a passage in Greek, check the glossary for unusual words and consult the commentary as a last resort” (p. xii). Compare Steadman’s advice: “Read actively and make lots of educated guesses;” “Reread a passage immediately after completion;” after achieving some mastery, read the same text without notes.[17] There is room for these in the classroom too, as a complement to The Textbook and other instruction; for instance, the format allows for sight reading in class, while textual errors become “teaching moments.” I have used the Dickinson College Commentary of Against Neaira, and this year will use Nimis and Hayes’ Lucian True History. Whether utilised independently or with instructor guidance, the utility of readers lies in offering a broader selection of Greek literature to interested learners, especially those looking to read post-classical Greek. I am grateful to Nimis and Hayes for putting together these volumes and always impatient for the next offering. As observed at the beginning of this review, their increasing availability suggests desirability and value, even (or perhaps especially) as the educational landscape changes. I am all for more people reading more ancient Greek, and that is what these readers—the latest is no exception—are all about.
Notes
[1] Plato’s Symposium and Herodotus Book 1 (1st edn) November 4, 2009.
[2] Lucian, A True Story; The Ass; On the Syrian Goddess; Dialogues of the Sea Gods; Dialogues of the Courtesans; Dialogues of the Dead; Dialogues of the Gods; Assembly of the Gods; Judgement of the Goddesses; Zeus the Tragedian; Prolaliai. Also, Hippocrates, On Airs, Waters and Places and the Hippocratic Oath, Plutarch, Dialogue on Love; Galen, Three Treatises; Menander, Dyskolos. They also produce Latin readers. Some have been reviewed here: BMCR 2012.09.55 Lucian the Ass; BMCR 2013.05.21 On the Syrian Goddess; BMCR 2015.05.20 A True Story. Also, Hadavas: BMCR 2018.11.02 Cebes’ Tablet & Prodicus’ “Choice of Heracles”; BMCR 2025.04.13 Chariton, Callirhoe; BMCR 2019.03.26 Ancient Greek Epigrams: A Selection; BMCR 2015.04.22 Lucian, On the Death of Peregrinus.
[3] Hadavas includes every word on each page until it has occurred five times (excepting words with more than one meaning).
[4] Minor issues include missing accents and/or incorrect breathings (e.g., p. xv); typos (e.g., “Soics” for “Stoics”, p. 21); missing punctuation, extra white space, etc. Colons appear instead the conventional high dots used by Steadman and Hadavas.
[5] Or Cambridge Grammar of Classical Greek. Earlier readers, e.g., Dialogues of the Gods, omit Smyth.
[6] E.g., exclamatory expressions (pp. 64; 66); future conditions (p. 69); present general conditions (p. 74); expressions of purpose (p. 77); ἄν (p. 83); meanings of ἔχω (p. 123).
[7] General principles pertaining to participles (p. 25); translation of aorist participles (p. 28); distinguishing participles after verbs of perception (p. 120).
[8] D. Keller & S. Russell, Learn to Read Ancient Greek (Yale 2012), p. 376. Nimis and Hayes admit their translations “will often sound like perfect participles” (cf., p. 32, where ὄντα is translated concessively).
[9] E.g., FLV identified p. 97 without referencing p. 69; purpose clause identified p. 122, without referencing p. 77 (admittedly, Smyth is referenced here regarding optative in purpose clause, primary sequence).
[10] Pythagoras (p. 4); Diogenes (p. 13); Aristippus of Cyrene (p. 24); Heraclitus and Democritus (p. 26); Epicurus (p. 37); Chrysippus (p. 38); but why not Dion (p. 36)?
[11] See the Bolchazy-Carducci website. .
[12] Pharr, C. “The Visible Vocabulary”, Classical Outlook (1962), p. 31. Nimis and Hayes on vocabulary http://www.faenumpublishing.com/about-us.html; Cf. Steadman, Herodotus’ Histories Book 1 (2nd edn 2013), “readers … will … not need to turn a page or consult outside dictionaries” (p. v).
[13] L1 glosses aid L2 vocabulary (and language) processing and acquisition; see, e.g., Ko, M. “Glossing and Second Language Vocabulary Learning,” TESOL Q 46 (2012), 56–79; Nation, I., Learning vocabulary in another language (CUP 2001); Nikolova, O., “Effects of Visible and Invisible Hyperlinks on Vocabulary Acquisition and Reading Comprehension for High- and Average-Foreign Language Achievers,” Alsic 7 (2004), 29–53. García, M. “Vocabulary acquisition in the language classroom,” JCT 25 (2024) 116–122.
[14] Patrick, R., “Comprehensible Input and Krashen’s Theory.” Journal of Classics Teaching 20 (2019), 37–44.
[15] For decoding as not necessarily conducive to fluent reading, see Hoyos, D., The Classical Outlook, 70 (1993), 126–130.
[16] Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language (Heinemann 1982), 168.
[17] Roisman’s Hippolytus (Oklahoma 2024) offers this. Similarly, Steadman’s PDFs are formatted with facing vocabulary and commentary; thus, no peeking. The pages of the linked text are tripartite (as described above), rather than facing page.