The renaissance of studies of nature and religion by Classicists has borne fruit in numerous publications over the past decade, primarily focusing on landscape features, such as rivers, mountains, or trees. This monograph discusses several natural elements and takes the challenging path of understanding them at a regional level. ‘Nature sanctuaries’ (‘Naturheiligtümer’) in western Asia Minor (Aeolia, Ionia and Doris), from the Archaic to the Early Roman Imperial period, with a focus on archaeological evidence, form the scope of this work.
At the start, the introduction (“Einleitung und methodische Prämissen”) of this reasonably structured book addresses the dilemma that the interest in the ‘sacralisation of nature’ (‘Sakralisierung von Natur’) and the ambivalent term ‘nature sanctuary’ carry. Both the natural elements situated within or used as sanctuaries (e.g. cave sanctuaries), as well as sanctuaries located within nature, can be classified as nature sanctuaries. The author studies the former category, for instance springs in sanctuaries (e.g. the rock spring [‘Felsquelle’] along the Sacred Way near Miletus) or grottoes with known remains of cultic practices (e.g. the one at Kapıkaya, Pergamum). Schimpf does not employ concepts such as liminality and ‘nature gods’ (‘Naturgottheiten’) in defining these spaces. Instead, he discusses the degree of ‘naturalness’ (‘Naturbelassenheit’) and the localisation of sanctuaries, and then reflects on which gods are worshipped at them. He also asks about the function of natural elements and temporalities, such as an intentional relation to the (mythical) past. The main point—the spatial dimension, as exemplified by his definition of nature sanctuaries as ‘sacred space’ closely connected to natural features—is supported by archaeological data. While the reader is left wondering what exactly ‘sacred’ entails for Schimpf (the reference to Clifford Geertz’s approach to rituals conflicts with Schimpf’s later thoughts on sites without such practices), the spatial framework is very clear. The author finds ways of considering localisation, symbolism, visualisation, and communication in socio-spacial theories such as Martina Löw’s, which offer a wide range of tools that might have helped to sharpen many of the interesting points raised in the later analysis. The discussion would also have benefited from a return to Pierre Nora’s concept of lieux de mémoire, which is briefly mentioned.
Following the introduction, the book provides a well-organised catalogue presenting 41 analysed sites in the three regions under study, arranged alphabetically (“Befundanalyse”). Each entry includes archaeological finds and relevant chronological data, with particular attention paid to bibliographical references. This fills a research gap by offering an overview of material that previously has not been studied systematically. Schimpf generally seems to adopt a critical approach regarding the classification of sites as cultic, although this might have deserved more explicit comment. This also holds true for the selection of sites. Readers will appreciate that the sites discussed are numbered, allowing for easy navigation between catalogue and analysis. It is likewise helpful that colour photographs and drawings accompany almost every catalogue entry. The appendix on natural landmarks (‘Naturmale’), presented merely as a list of relevant literature without describing the evidence, is somewhat brief.
It is clear from the analysis of the sites in the catalogue how patchy the evidence is. Most documented sites are located in Ionia; geographical observations are hampered by the differing degrees of excavation and publication. As a result, the analysis that goes with the catalogue is largely reduced to a comparison between intra- and extra-urban sites. Schimpf tentatively suggests a development from a predominance of extra-urban sites in the Archaic and earlier periods to a particular interest in areas between settlements and city walls in Classical times, and later to sites increasingly concentrated within settlements.
The first completely analytical section (“Ritueller Raum in der Natur”) tackles spatial considerations. A lengthy discussion of city walls reveals that locations at the edges of settlements were particularly attractive for nature sanctuaries. The observation that there was no clear-cut boundary for such sites would have been strengthened by a much more thorough interpretation through renewed engagement with spatial theories, better integration of literary sources, and further elaboration on the notion of ‘sacralisation’.
The subsequent section on natural elements (“Natürliche Elemente im rituellen Raum”) opens the door to the full analytical ambitions of the study. It begins with different natural elements within sanctuaries (‘Naturzeichen’). Schimpf argues that natural rock formations were perhaps intentionally incorporated into surrounding architectural structures. But no specific function can be assigned, for example, to the well-known ‘Felsbarre’ beneath the extra-urban sanctuary of Asclepius in Pergamum; crevices are tentatively associated with possible ritual functions in the context of bothroi-related use. Similarly inconclusive are the few examples of grottoes and caves in relation to sanctuaries. The author links springs to potential mythical associations and cultic functions, but the argument does not elaborate further on those well-attested features of Greek sanctuaries. The same applies to rivers, and finally to trees. The comparison with the Delian palm overlooks the much greater complexity of the literary tradition (cf., for example, Callim. fr. 154 vv. 83–84 [Asper]). The section also engages in speculation concerning the location of the Samian lygos in the Heraion. Schimpf touches upon the intersection of myth and trees but seems to jump too easily to conclusions that would have warranted a more detailed treatment, for instance regarding aspects of the staging of the ritual practices at them. Possible ritual connections of trees, or even their veneration, are considered, and a potentially more decisive role of such elements in the early phases of sanctuaries is proposed. This perspective echoes nineteenth-century scholarship on nature and religion (though an introduction to this scholarship is missing); however, the limited access to the past for the examples discussed—particularly the scarcity of evidence for the Archaic period—reduces the possibility of adequately evaluating this claim. Consequently, the repeated suggestions of developmental trajectories concerning the integration of natural elements into sanctuaries (especially pp. 149–151) are unconvincing. They overlook the fact that assigning a central role to natural elements in (early) sanctuaries has been shaped by intentional narratives and storytelling, for example, those that connected Hellenistic poleis to a Panhellenic mythical cosmos. Nevertheless, those natural elements integrated into sanctuaries are plausibly interpreted as ‘markers’ that are linked to the past, as demonstrated by architectural additions that respect earlier natural elements. Problematically, Schimpf concludes by designating these markers as the ‘Allerheiligstes’, which implies a fixed hierarchy of sacrality. Categories and terminology relating to religion (and partly also to nature) would have required greater attention throughout the book, as they often derive from early scholarship (cf. ‘primordiale Gottesdienste’, ‘numinos’).
The second part of the section (“Das Naturelement als Kultstätte”) discusses natural elements that constitute a site. A ‘Nischenplatz’ encompasses several niches within a larger area in the rock and emerges as a specifically Ionian phenomenon. This is contrasted with the ‘Nischenwand’, a more transformed natural rock face with visible boundaries and possible votive installations. Rock thrones and rock altars are introduced as elements potentially adopted from Phrygian examples. Springs, with or without relation to caves and grottoes, conclude the systematic overview. On the basis of very diverse literary sources (e.g. the Odyssey, Plato’s account of Socrates’ reflections on natural features near the Ilissus), Schimpf suggests that natural elements constituting a cultic site might have possessed religious connotations per se. He also considers practical functions, arguing, for instance, that springs provided water along processional routes and trees offered shade. Particular attention is paid to those ‘Naturräume’ located at the edges of settlements. Schimpf observes that such sites were established after the construction of city walls. As with earlier attempts to trace developments, however, this argument rests on limited evidence.
As in the catalogue, Schimpf’s caution regarding associations between specific landscape features and particular deities is again helpful in the section on cult and ritual (“Kult und Ritual”). A clear connection between a deity and nature sanctuaries is found with the goddess Meter and rocks. The author argues that there is an increasing tedency from the late Classical period onwards to include multiple deities at a single site, but the uneven distribution of the evidence makes this difficult to prove. The list of finds presented in the catalogue could have been more fully integrated into interpretations (for instance, the [fore-]arms found in the grotto near Kaletepe).
An attempt to capture the worshippers of nature sanctuaries follows (“Kultakteure”). Epigraphic evidence attests connections with polis authorities, countering the misconception that such sites represent ‘private cult’, a problematic category in itself. As Schimpf rightly notes, reconstructing further information about worshippers remains difficult. His suggestion (p. 159) that rituals may have been confined to intra-urban sanctuaries, while natural sites such as niches in steep terrain were perhaps not used for this purpose, lacks firm evidence. This argument is based on votive offerings and overlooks the fact that cult practice encompasses more dimensions than traceable material remains.
The final section (“Naturkonzepte”) reflects on concepts of nature and again highlights the potential difficulty of capturing nature sanctuaries as sites that may or may not include architecture. It returns to memorial aspects and staging effects associated with architectural alignment to natural elements in sanctuaries. Meter’s role as a prominent deity connected to several sites is further explored. Nature is understood as a potential trigger for cult activity, supplemented by the rationalising argument that steep hills near city walls offered few alternative uses.
The study presents a helpful classification for natural features (cf. already Engels et al. 2019) and successfully shows that the natural elements discussed are not isolated from settlements. Despite the concise discussion of the three analytical parameters—‘naturalness’, localisation, and worshipped deities—the restricted engagement with sources related to the sites under study limits the depth of the analysis. Greater use of comparative material would have been necessary to contextualise many hypotheses based on scarce evidence. Occasional inclusion of epigraphic and literary sources helps to introduce central ideas such as the relation to myth and memorial functions, but these aspects are not developed further, despite their importance. A more thorough discussion of textual sources and engagement with the growing body of secondary literature on nature and religion would have strengthened the proposed interpretations. This would not have undermined the focus on western Asia Minor, which Schimpf appears to regard as potentially problematic, but would instead have enabled more confident interpretation of the archaeological evidence. The book refers only to publications up to 2021 (Engels 2022 appeared too late; Schimpf’s own earlier articles that already discuss some of these issues are not cited). Arguments made in fundamental works are not fully considered, although they would have helped to anchor the interpretive ideas introduced (e.g. the intertwining of sacred space and memorial aspects could have been strengthened with Alcock 2002). Consideration of additional contextual literature would have further developed the arguments, for example by contextualising Hellenistic sanctuary design, elaborating on the relevance of myth in relation to landscape features, and examining the regional focus in light of local cultural phenomena from other regions (e.g. Birge 1982 on groves; McInerney and Sluiter 2016 on landscape and myth; Haug and Müller 2020 on architectural issues; Bremmer on rivers in Scheer 2019; Zepernick 2020 on ‘sacred trees’). This would have opened additional interpretative layers concerning regional choices to integrate natural elements or the cultic dimensions of nature sanctuaries. Not all works cited in the references appear in the bibliography (noticed for ‘Agelidis 2009’, ‘Löw u.a. 2007’, ‘Philippson 1939’, ‘Müller-Scheeßel 2013’).
The book discusses numerous sites in western Asia Minor with a useful catalogue and provides basic information on how to understand nature sanctuaries; however, at the interpretative level it does not offer in-depth answers. The focus on natural features in relation to sanctuaries within a regional framework is both challenging and valuable and deserves further scholarly attention. The questions raised concerning the religious connotations of natural elements and the staging of sanctuary settings indicate new directions for future research, for instance through the exploration of other regions or more theory-informed approaches to the study of nature sanctuaries.
References
Alcock, Susan E.: Archaeologies of the Greek Past. Landscape, Monuments, and Memories. The W.B. Stanford Memorial Lectures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Birge, Darice Elizabeth: Sacred Groves in the Ancient Greek World. PhD Diss. University of California. Berkeley, 1982.
Engels, Benjamin, Huy, Sabine, and Steitler, Charles: “Natur und Kult in Anatolien. Tendenzen, Diskrepanzen und Perspektiven,” in: Benjamin Engels, Sabine Huy, and Charles Steitler (ed.): Natur und Kult in Anatolien. Viertes Wissenschaftliches Netzwerk an der Abteilung Istanbul des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Byzas 24. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları, 2019: xi–xxiii.
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