[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review.]
This book presents a comprehensive study of a remarkably well-preserved Middle Minoan IIB workshop devoted to organic dye production, uncovered in 2007 on the hill of Alatzomouri near Pacheia Ammos in East Crete. Built into terraces above the village, the complex revealed installations for the preparation and use of various organic dyes, including red derived from madder and bugloss, yellow from weld, and purple from the murex Hexaplex trunculus. Excavated by the 24th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities under the direction of Vili Apostolakou, the site constitutes one of the most significant pieces of evidence for the early history of textile dyeing in the Aegean, particularly its development in eastern Crete from the late Prepalatial through the Protopalatial periods. The Pefka facility, probably administered by the palatial center at Gournia, offers unparalleled insights into Minoan craft traditions, trade, and industrial organization during the Bronze Age.
In the introduction, editors Vili Apostolakou, Thomas Brogan, and Philip Betancourt emphasize the importance of this multidisciplinary investigation, which sheds light on early dyeing technologies and contributes crucial data to the economic and cultural understanding of Minoan Crete. Their coordinated excavation and analysis integrate archaeological, botanical, and chemical evidence to reconstruct a comprehensive picture of dye production in the Bronze Age Aegean.
The first chapter, also signed by the editors and Konstantinos Chalikias, provides a comprehensive account of the archaeological excavation at Pefka. Initially identified by a series of ground depressions resembling tombs, the site was revealed as a sophisticated industrial facility featuring artificial basins carved from limestone—the only known example of its kind from Middle Minoan Crete. The excavation uncovered a small, isolated site, characterized by a series of rock-cut basins, secondary features such as mortars and fragmentary walls, and extensive deposits of pottery, stone tools, and marine shells. Finds from the excavation included all classes of vessels and tools, murex shells linked to purple dye manufacture, and imported objects like seals from Malia and Kamares Ware cups, indicating strong regional connections. Altogether, this chapter illuminates the organization and technological sophistication of Minoan dye workshops, shedding new light on the social and economic impact of Bronze Age industry in Crete.
The next chapter by Betancourt explores the architecture, features, and function of the rock-cut basins at Alatzomouri Pefka, emphasizing their pivotal role in Middle Minoan dye production and fabric processing. The workshop is situated in an isolated but strategic location on Alatzomouri Hill, close to the coast and neighboring settlements, yet with few signs of domestic activity, indicating its purpose as an industrial site rather than a residential one. Its layout comprises nine basins—including circular and rectangular examples—carved into limestone bedrock, along with associated channels, mortars, and remnants of stone walls, all carefully designed to accommodate natural drainage and facilitate complex workflows. The archaeological evidence includes large quantities of ceramic vessels, stone pounders, marine shells, and clay drains, supporting the industrial character of the site and confirming activities like the preparation, boiling, and coloring of wool brought in from off-site, rather than spinning or weaving, which left little trace at Pefka. The chapter details preparatory steps for dyeing—sheep wool washing, oil removal, and soaking in dyes—all made possible by the site’s water management systems and seasonal work cycles, attested by use of cisterns and channels. Social and economic organization is also addressed, revealing evidence for a structured workforce, a probable supervisor, and production that likely supplied local and regional markets.
Betancourt and Brogan’s chapter on the Middle Minoan IIB pottery from the workshop at Alatzomouri Pefka provides a detailed catalogue and analysis of a substantial assemblage of ceramic vessels found both scattered across the site and within a destruction-filled well or cistern. The analysis of pottery from the workshop organizes the assemblage into four primary functional groups: ordinary pottery, industrial vessels, elite vessels, and ceremonial containers. This classification provides a nuanced understanding of the ceramic repertoire, reflecting diverse utilitarian, industrial, social, and ritual functions within the workshop context. Predominantly, the assemblage consists of ceramics manufactured in the Mirabello Fabric characterized by igneous rock inclusions. Evidence of specific vessels associated to dye preparation, and the discovery of associated tools within the site shed light on specific practices performed in the area.
Excavated from the same well, the serpentinite prism seal examined by Thomas M. Brogan presents a snapshot of Middle Minoan IIB culture. The seal’s three faces showcase distinct imagery: a stylized Minoan male figure, a trio of jugs alongside familiar geometric motifs, and a more complex, compound device. This artifact exemplifies standard Minoan iconography, providing insights into both symbolic communication and practical administrative or ritual functions within the workshop’s socio-economic sphere.
Heidi Dierckx’s analysis of chipped and ground stone tools from the workshop provides a rare secure archaeological context for these implements within the Aegean Bronze Age. The assemblage includes 151 ground stone tools and three obsidian blades, predominantly recovered from the well/cistern associated with the workshop, with others found in varied site contexts. Notably, the majority of tools exhibit percussion wear consistent with activities related to wool scouring and crushing of murex shells, indicating their instrumental role in dye preparation. The systematic discard of these implements into the well at site abandonment offers invaluable insight into the workshop’s operational dynamics and material culture.
Dimitra Mylona’s analysis of the animal remains highlights a predominance of marine species, especially crushed Hexaplex trunculus shells directly associated with purple dye production. Terrestrial remains are limited and mainly consist of ovicaprids, chiefly sheep, with a notable absence of cattle bones. The faunal assemblage reflects both industrial waste linked to dye manufacture and everyday dietary practices, emphasizing the specialized yet integrated nature of the workshop community.
Evi Margaritis’s analysis of archaeobotanical remains at Alatzomouri Pefka reveals a limited but significant assemblage comprising hulled barley, lentils, olives, grapes, almonds, flax, and viper’s bugloss. Plant remains were recovered primarily from soil samples in the well/cistern context, indicating both dietary and possible dye-related plant usage. The botanical evidence complements the broader understanding of the site’s function as a dye workshop, where some plant species may have contributed organic dyes or fibers, while others reflect subsistence activities.
Betancourt’s study of the clay drain fragments reveals the presence of three-sided clay channels typical of Minoan architecture, used primarily for directing small amounts of water above ground, such as rainwater from roofs to cisterns. The drain pieces, all found out of their original context, demonstrate significant variation in clay fabric and dimensions, indicating the reuse of disparate materials rather than a uniform installation. This informal approach suggests a pragmatic attitude toward water management within the dye workshop, aligning with other evidence that the facility operated on a large scale but with less emphasis on architectural uniformity or efficiency.
Joanne Cutler and Thomas Brogan’s examination of textile tools centers on the recovery of four discoid terracotta loomweights dating to Middle Minoan IIB. These loomweights, varying slightly in shape and size, indicate the use of warp-weighted looms capable of producing fine threads and a range of textile densities, from balanced to more open or weft-faced fabrics. Although the small number of loomweights limits conclusions about large-scale weaving activities on site, their presence aligns with Minoan textile production traditions and suggests multiple textile types could have been manufactured or processed at the workshop.
Betancourt’s studies of stone vessels and a suspension device highlight the workshop’s blend of industrial functionality and elite material culture. The finely crafted serpentinite lamp and handled cup indicate elite presence and possibly evening or low-light activity related to dye production. The suspension device, characterized by crossed handles and an inverted bowl, likely served to hang dyed wool while protecting it from sunlight during drying. Together, these artifacts reflect the specialized technological adaptations and the coexistence of utilitarian and refined objects within the dyeing complex, illuminating the practical and social dimensions of Minoan dye production.
The importance of the organic residue analysis, as detailed by Andrew Koh and colleagues, lies in the unprecedented scale and methodological rigor of the investigation. The use of advanced analytical techniques such as GC-MS and UPLC-MS across 29 carefully selected samples allowed for precise identification of various organic compounds, avoiding contamination through stringent controls. This depth and breadth of analysis provide a comprehensive biochemical profile of the site’s ceramic contents, shedding light on the production, use, and consumption patterns within the dye workshop.
Floyd McCoy’s chapter on the site’s geology focuses on the Pefka layer: a geologically unique, dense limestone with extremely low porosity and permeability that enabled the creation of watertight basins crucial for ancient dye production workshops. Laboratory and field evidence confirm its effectiveness in retaining water, with only the uppermost subunit providing a reliable watertight seal, while underlying brecciated layers offer higher permeability when deeper drainage was needed.
Using textual evidence from Linear B documents, Thomas Palaima supports the interpretation that the Middle Minoan IIB rock-cut basins and associated artifacts at Alatzomouri Pefka constitute a small, industrial dye workshop. He argues that different dyes were processed in separate basins, as indicated by the presence of crushed marine shells and organic residues linked to murex purple, madder, and weld. The chapter also discusses the two-stage work process, with dye preparation taking place in one locality and dye application in another. Moreover, the Minoan origin of the purple dye industry is emphasized, supported by linguistic and archaeological evidence.
The volume concludes with a thorough discussion and conclusions, accompanied by comprehensive references, a concordance of accession and catalog numbers, and a detailed index. This collaborative synthesis highlights the discovery of the Middle Minoan IIB dye workshop at Alatzomouri Pefka, presenting it as evidence of a large, specialized industry integrated within a complex economic and palatial system. This provides a well-organized and thorough resource for researchers interested in Minoan archaeology and ancient industrial practices; however, a few inconsistencies across chapters deserve closer scrutiny. For example, the question of whether Pefka functioned solely as an industrial site or also as a habitation remains ambiguous. On page 26, the authors suggest that little domestic evidence survives, implying a non-residential site. Yet, on page 77, the pottery assemblage is interpreted as indicative of personnel living on site, though page 25 tempers this by asserting “little evidence is present to suggest that all the workers lived at the dyeing facility.” A similar tension emerges regarding the source and production of purple dye: page 24 argues that the presence of abundant crushed murex shells confirms active local production, whereas page 94 states that “liquid purple pigment from a production site elsewhere was brought to the dyer’s installation at Pefka,” suggesting an import of the prepared dye. Regarding technical and environmental factors, the absence of waterproofing efforts in the dye basins (p. 25) is answered by geological study (p. 121), which notes the unique low porosity and permeability of the local rock provided a naturally suitable setting for dye processing. Finally, the discussion on mordants presents contrasting viewpoints: while page 117 states that key dyes (murex purple, madder, weld) do not require mordants, page 118 proposes that urine, a known mordant agent, may have been used to fix natural dyes like rose madder on fibers such as wool.
Overall, this study is a well-written and insightful book that illuminates the complexities of Minoan dye and textile technology while also enhancing our appreciation for the cultural importance of color. It is poised to become a definitive reference for scholars investigating both Minoan archaeology and the broader history of ancient dyeing practices.
Authors and titles
- Introduction, Vili Apostolakou, Thomas M. Brogan, and Philip P. Betancourt
- Excavation at Pefka, Vili Apostolakou, Thomas M. Brogan, Konstantinos Chalikias, and Philip P. Betancourt
- Rock-Cut Basins: Form and Function, Philip P. Betancourt
- Pottery, Philip P. Betancourt and Thomas M. Brogan
- Prism Seal, Thomas M. Brogan
- Chipped and Ground Stone Tools, Heidi M.C. Dierckx
- Animal Remains, Dimitra Mylona
- Archaeobotanical Remains, Evi Margaritis
- Drain Fragments, Philip P. Betancourt
- Textile Tools, Joanne Cutler and Thomas M. Brogan
- Stone Vessels, Philip P. Betancourt
- Suspension Device, Philip P. Betancourt
- Organic Residue Studies, Andrew Koh, Vili Apostolakou, Marie N. Pareja, Alison M. Crandall, and Philip P. Betancourt
- Geology and Geoarchaeology, Floyd W. McCoy
- Porphureion and Kalkhion and Minoan-Mycenaean Purple Dye Manufacture and Use, Thomas Palaima
- Discussion and Conclusions, Philip P. Betancourt, Thomas M. Brogan, and Vili Apostolakou