This comprehensive 532-page volume, weighing over 3 kilograms, is dedicated to the smallest coins ever minted in the Southern Levant—the Yehud coins, most of which weigh less than half a gram. The book explores the historical, numismatic, and archaeological contexts of these minuscule coins in meticulous detail. The small silver Yehud coins were the first coins struck in the ancient land of Judah by local officials.
For more than a century, the study of Yehud coinage was limited to a single silver drachm in the British Museum, described by Taylor Combe in 1814. This coin, initially categorized as “Philisto-Arabian,” featured a figure that scholars believed represented the Hebrew God. The situation changed in the 1930s when additional small-denomination silver coins were discovered in Israel. In 1931, W.F. Albright and O. R. Sellers identified a tiny silver coin with a facing head on one side and an owl flanked by a paleo-Hebrew legend on the other. This legend, later read as “Hezekiah,” was thought to refer to the Jewish high priest who emigrated to Egypt under Ptolemy I, according to Josephus (Apion 1.187-189). By 1967, when Yaakov Meshorer published Jewish Coins of the Second Temple Period, only six Yehud coin specimens were known. The volume under review greatly expands upon that foundation with a detailed die study and classification system.
The first chapter provides a historical overview of the Near East during the minting of Yehud coins, spanning from the late fifth century BCE to the early Ptolemaic Period. The authors explain that Judah was initially a district within the Fifth Persian Satrapy, governed by a peḥah (governor) with some degree of local autonomy. The Yehud coinage is categorized into three principal periods: Persian, Macedonian, and Ptolemaic. The authors suggest that the cessation of Yehud coinage might have been linked to an administrative change in Judah. They speculate that high priest Onias II and Ptolemy III were involved in this change, with Onias II’s refusal to continue the coinage potentially signaling a reform that eliminated Judah’s quasi-autonomous status and the Yehud coinage.
Chapter two discusses the methodology and results of the die study conducted by Fontanille. Due to the small size of Yehud coins and their often-poor condition—struck from damaged dies and suffering from wear and crystallization—Fontanille created composite images from decades of photographs. While these composites are generally successful, some caution is needed in interpreting them. For example, images on page 35 suggest that one obverse example, described as “blank,” is actually heavily corroded and may not have been blank.
The authors propose that Yehud coinage began with drachms bearing Aramaic legends struck at a Philistian mint, possibly Gaza, on commission from the provincial government of Judah. When the local mint was established there, it produced almost exclusively tiny silver coins. Few Yehud coins with paleo-Hebrew legends were struck weighing more than one gram.
Chapter three examines the metrological systems underlying the Yehud coinage, proposing weight standards and denominations for each type. The authors suggest a local weight standard established during the Iron Age, and record the weights of 1,166 examples by type in an addendum (pp. 59-73). David L. Weisburd and Gitler provide a statistical overview showing a decline in the weight standard over time (pp. 56-58).
Chapter four reviews known coin hoards containing Yehud coins, including those in private collections and dispersed into the trade. The authors provide detailed descriptions and enlarged photographs of these coins, which are valuable for preserving and documenting this information.
Chapter five focuses on the chronology of the Yehud coins. It opens facing a page with each of the 44 types in the corpus of Yehud coins reproduced at 1:1 scale. This presentation highlights the tiny size of Yehud coins, compared with the hundreds of enlarged photos elsewhere in the book. The chapter discusses the evidence regarding paleography, style, archaeological context, and hoards, suggesting that the main series of Yehud coins commenced in the mid-fourth century BCE. A specific anepigraphic coin depicting lily and owl, Type 29, previously thought to be from the early Yehud series, is reclassified by Gitler et al., as dating from ca. 305-302 BCE based on its weight and owl style. The chapter concludes with a comparison of fractional silver coins and bronze coins of similar denominations during the Ptolemaic period.
Chapter six will appeal to art historians, as it identifies and theorizes the evolution of iconographic types on Yehud and relevant Philistian coins. It includes clear photographs of Greek coins, pottery, cylinder seals, and other artifacts for comparison. Much of the discussion focuses on the two unique drachms (Types 1 and 2), especially the first, with a seated figure in a winged chariot, in the British Museum, since it is the focus of a vast corpus of interpretations. One major change in this chapter is the revised description of one coin, Type 15. The first time this coin was published, the image was identified as a helmet with cheek guards. A later interpretation rotated the coin 180 degrees and identified an incense burner. Working with better preserved specimens, Gitler et al identify this type as a sacrificial dove perched on a sacrificial utensil, possibly a bowl. Another revision of previous identification is the discussion of type 31, described previously as a feline head, horse head, or chimera, but described here as most likely a roaring lion.
Chapter seven, by André Lemaire, provides an in-depth analysis of the paleo-Hebrew legends on these coins. The charts and discussions of each letter used in the legends, and their chronological usage, are valuable resources. Lemaire’s discussion of graffiti on these tiny coins is particularly notable, offering insights into a topic often overlooked by numismatists.
Chapter eight offers updated descriptions of each of the 44 Yehud coin types. This section is a resource almost impossible to duplicate, featuring clear, enlarged photographs of many specimens, including those with die clashing errors (Types 19 and 20), showing how they came about. The photographs, collected over decades, provide crucial data, and each coin’s die is noted.
Questions arise with regard to Type 3, a drachm, which is said to have a “lapidary Aramaic” legend, but does not appear to have a Yehud inscription at all—although it does begin with the letter yod. This type also carries a clear ayin, the mintmark of ancient Gaza. Although it is postulated that the earliest Yehud coins were struck in Gaza, it is not clear whether this coin should be listed among them or among the Philistian issues, some of which bear names.
The dies discussed in this chapter are linked to connection tables at the book’s end. The authors note that ‘the finest Yehud dies cut by master engravers are rarely paired with inferior dies” (p. 227, note 19). The chapter concludes with additions and recent discoveries included late in the editorial process.
Chapter nine is entitled “The Archaeological Provenances and Circulation of the Yehud Coins.” In a note to this chapter, Yoav Farhi points out (p. 305) that this book lists some 2,000 Yehud coins, but only 60 of them have been derived from controlled excavations (28 by Farhi himself, an experienced metal detectorist, archaeologist, and numismatist)—each one discovered within the boundaries of Judah. All of these coins from controlled excavations are photographed and fully annotated and described and illustrated by color maps to mark the geography of find spots. By comparison, the authors also discuss and list the find-spot information for Yehud amphora jar stamps dating from Persian to Hellenistic periods as well as the circulation of non-Yehud Persian period coins struck elsewhere in the southern Levant in the fourth century BCE. Interestingly they are not necessarily the same.
Farhi’s note discusses the use of metal detectors in excavations, highlighting their importance for finding tiny Yehud coins.
Chapter ten, by François de Callataÿ, places the Yehud die study in the context of Greek coin die studies. De Callataÿ crunches the numbers, based on established methodologies, to estimate the number of Yehud coins minted, noting that Yehud coins are outliers due to their small denominations, limited circulation area, and small volume. He concludes that Yehud coinage was likely insufficient for military use and may have been intended for payments to local administrative employees.
Chapter eleven examines the minting process of Yehud coinage. Although archaeological evidence points to Ramat Raḥel as a provincial administrative center during the Persian period, there is no indication that the Yehud mint was located there. Jerusalem is suggested as a more likely location even though few Yehud coins from the Macedonian or Ptolemaic Period support this, suggesting the circulation pattern reflects the coins’ function rather than their origin. The best-engraved Yehud dies were probably created outside Judah and were later imitated locally. The Yehud coinage’s silver purity matches the highest attainable by contemporary refining methods, and it is believed that the mint melted circulating Greek coins for bullion. Other production steps, like casting silver rods, slicing planchets, and striking coins, were probably managed locally.
Chapter twelve evaluates the economic role of Yehud coinage, noting the peculiarity of minting only one denomination at a time, with rare exceptions. It suggests that the coins were used for paying the least well-remunerated provincial administration employees in Judah, such as low-level military personnel (guards or police) based on pay comparisons with Ptolemaic Egypt. Estimates of annual pay and total production indicate a small payroll of 50 to 100 employees, though food allowances might suggest slightly higher numbers. This low-paid, small workforce probably did not significantly impact Judah’s monetized economy, especially considering other coins in circulation, including imported Greek and Phoenician coins and royal currencies from Alexander and the Ptolemies. Comparisons of different coin samples indicate that imported and royal coinages comprised most of the value of circulating money.
A well-documented set of 81 die connection tables for all 44 Yehud types follows the final chapter. The connection table images are large and clear with enlarged details in many cases. The connection table drives home the reality that the study of these coins is somewhat handicapped since there are many of the studied coins that are known only from a single specimen. This reflects back to Farhi’s comments in Chapter nine regarding the importance of completely exploring excavated sites with the aid of metal detectors.
Appendix one, by Dana Ashkenazi and Gitler, discusses ancient silver refinement and why alloys used in coins were sometimes debased. They present a scanning electron microscope analysis of Types 2 and 3 drachms. The analysis confirms the ancient origin of the specimens studied. A second appendix provides source data for the 1,960 Yehud coins studied in the connection tables.
This extensive and thoroughly-researched volume provides a comprehensive resource for scholars and numismatists interested in the Yehud coinage and its historical context.