The Cambridge companion to Alexander the Great

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[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review]

The Cambridge Companion to Alexander the Great, as its editor has pointed out, represents the “latest wisdom on Alexander the Great and his contexts” (p. 1). Such wisdom is advanced here mainly by the ‘Alexander Team’ (Alexander équipe), that is to say those scholars who have produced such works on this topic, in conferences and publications, inspired by the international meeting organised in New South Wales by Elizabeth Baynham and the late Brian Bosworth in 1997. Their names are well-known in the field of Alexander scholarship and this review shall shortly canvass their individual contributions. Most of those authors have been involved in other, comparable projects such as this on the same theme. And this Companion now joins a host of other  compendious tomes, including works such as A. B. Bosworth and E. J. Baynham (eds.) Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, OUP: 2000

b, along with the likes of J. Roisman (ed.), Brill’s Companion to Alexander the Great, Brill: 2003, R. Stoneman (ed.), A History of Alexander the Great in World Culture, CUP: 2022, with both Roisman and Stoneman also contributing to Ogden’s volume, and Su Fang Ng, Alexander the Great from Britain to Southeast Asia, OUP: 2019.  One may likewise include another by the author of this review titled Brill’s Companion to the Reception of Alexander the Great, Brill: 2018 (with another titled the Intersectional Alexander forthcoming by that same author in 2025) and many others of comparable worth which shall be omitted here only for want of space. It is worth emphasising that none of the burgeoning scholarship on Alexander the Great is redundant or excessive. All of it adds to our highly imperfect understanding of the Macedonian Conqueror and his legacy. And so it is with this preamble in mind that we now turn to the contents of this most recent Companion to join the marching ranks of its noble predecessors.

The book itself is handsomely presented, in keeping with what one would expect from Cambridge UP. It is laid out in a helpful manner, with a thorough reference section and index, making effective use of maps along with colour and black & white images throughout. Ogden’s introduction to the volume helpfully traces out the trends and debates in the modern scholarship, including, but not limited to, the likes of Johan Droysen, Helmut Berve, Fritz Schachermeyer, Ulrich Wilcken, and Ernst Badian. He canvasses W.W. Tarn, Peter Green, Robin Lane Fox, and others, effectively capturing and contextualising the historical ‘conversation’ about Alexander the Great that has been ongoing since at least the early 19^th century in European and world scholarship. Ogden also lays out the structure of the Companion here. The reviewer notes, however, that Ogden himself has authored three chapters of this work, along with an annotated timeline; and a couple of the contributors likewise undertook more than one chapter. The author of this review wonders, therefore, whether a number of contributors had perchance unexpectedly dropped out, as happened to a different Companion edited by this reviewer and spanning 2019-2022 in production. Possibly this Companion, too, suffered from the so-called ‘Great Resignation’ following the pandemic. If so, then its editor has amply acquitted himself with this work, in spite of such difficulties. The editor has thematically divided it into four parts. The eight chapters of Part I entail an approximately chronological account of the Conqueror’s life and career. Part II focuses more narrowly on specific themes and contexts in eleven chapters. Part III, in six chapters, addresses mainly epistemological matters, along with some questions of memory, in relation to historical and biographical sources. Following on from the theme of history and memory, Part IV deals with receptions of Alexander situated within the ancient context, including his own lifetime and, to a lesser extent, afterwards. Ogden has mostly avoided post-antique receptions, pointing out that these have been thoroughly covered in Stoneman’s recent volume as well as others, such as that by the author of this review. This Companion might have ventured farther into the realm of receptions; but it would then become a matter of where to draw the line, as the project might extend beyond editorial decorum. This reviewer takes no issue with Ogden’s approach–except perhaps to note that the sheer vastness of receptions of Alexander the Great, in both ancient times and subsequently, is sufficient to keep scholars occupied for considerable ages to come. For now, though, let us further explore the individual sections and chapters of this work.

Part I, styled “Alexander’s Life and Career”, opens with a chapter by the editor himself, titled “Alexander’s Birth and Childhood”. He states that it mostly amounts to a “footnote” on the first ten chapters of Plutarch’s famous biography, rightly pointing out that we owe that Platonist priest of Apollo considerably for the material on Alexander’s youth, which is largely absent from other major sources. The chapter covers his youth with recourse to Plutarch but also the likes of Aeschines (being one of the few contemporary sources in existence) and also including Aelian, Athenaeus, Curtius Rufus, and Justin. Ogden ventures into matters such as Alexander’s sexuality and his formative experiences at Chaeronea, concluding with some helpful scholarship for further reading. Ogden wrote the second chapter as well, on the theme of the crises leading to Alexander’s accession as King of Macedon. The author picks up from Chaeronea and explores several key events (i.e. the marriage to Attalus’ niece, the Pixodarus Affair, exile) in the two years following that battle and leading up to Philip II’s assassination. Ogden walks the reader through the stages of Alexander’s accession, focusing on the challenges he faced at each point. Again, he helpfully concludes on some further reading–as do all chapters. And this appears to be a ‘design feature’, which this reviewer considers welcome and helpful, but which will not be mentioned again here, being QED. The next chapter in that section is by Borja Antela-Bernárdez on the notoriously tricky subject of Alexander’s relationship with the Greeks.  Topics of interest include the troublesome League of Corinth, various rebellions, the Greeks in Asia, and the wider transformation of Greek culture, which the author considers to be the most important aspect of this relationship, which transpired as a consequence of the conquest.

Chapter 4 is by Edward Anson, another well-known name on the now extended Alexander équipe. He explores the question of why Alexander wanted to conquer as much and as far as he did or, indeed, at all. Anson challenges Waldemar Heckel’s claim that Alexander sought those parts of the Persian Empire in the east that had fallen away because they were renegade and needed restoring to the fold. Instead, he places the onus fully on Alexander himself, arguing persuasively that, while rooted in a political reality, his insatiable desire for conquest was driven by personal glory more so than anything else, and likely also fuelled by his youthful ambitions. Next, Timothy Howe’s chapter focuses on Alexander’s time in Egypt, including the founding of Alexandria and the visit to the shrine of Ammon at the Siwah oasis, arguing that the latter in particular significantly defined that monarch’s royal identity both personally and in the wider world. Sabine Müller’s chapter then turns to Alexander’s relationship with the Persians before, during, and after the conquest. She goes over the sources, including such Persian ones as are available, their gaps and issues; and she also ranges through trends and debates in the historiography, noting how interpretations of Alexander’s relationship with the Persians have moved on from fairly two-dimensional and simplistic paradigms to more nuanced ones  still evolving. Richard Stoneman follows on Müller’s heels with a chapter about Alexander in India, considering both the sheer bulk of the (western) sources that deal with those events as well as the Conqueror’s rationale for undertaking that somewhat surprising part of the expedition. Stoneman contrasts the Alexander sources, where possible, with Indian or other eastern ones, concluding with an examination of the different types of cultural assimilation that took place between Greeks and non-Greeks in the far east of Alexander’s empire. Joseph Roisman’s chapter on the Death, Last Plans, and Burial of Alexander aptly rounds off this part of the Companion. In it, he considers questions of Alexander’s psychology in his final days, the loss of Hephaestion, whether there was a plot against his life, matters of succession, his putative Last Plans, and various matters relating to his body and tomb. There is little that is new here to those who are familiar with such topics; but Roisman has superbly laid out the arguments and sources relating to these problematic events and this chapter will be of considerable utility to anyone wishing to critically approach them in future.

Part II is styled “Contexts”, and it is the largest section of the volume, opening with a chapter on Macedonia itself by Carol King. She traces the history of the Argead Dynasty, the Persian occupation along with other politics at the borders of the kingdom and, of course, Philip II’s reforms. The chapter argues that the claims in Alexander’s speech at Opis about the transformation of Macedon under Philip were basically correct and also that the wealth brought back to Antipater’s Macedon from the veterans would spark further such transformation. Apropos to this, Greenwalt’s chapter is on Macedonian kingship. Drawing primarily on Herodotus and Justin, but encompassing much modern scholarship, it spans themes such as mythical origins, royal responsibilities, coinage, reforms, and symbolism.  It seems rather heavily weighted toward secondary source material than primary; though, its conclusions appear sound enough. Jeanne Reames’ chapter follows, suitably, on the subject of the Macedonian court and royal Companions. She traces many changes in these conventions over time, noting how they evolved to meet the needs of individual monarchs. A second chapter by that same author is next, expanding upon the changes to Alexander’s court following 330 BC, when new, non-Greek traditions were being introduced. She briefly goes over the differences with previous regimes prior to considering Alexander’s reforms. This chapter connects well with the previous one; although, it does feel a bit like a continuation of it. The next chapter by Elizabeth Carney keeps with the theme of the Macedonian court but highlights the women who were present at it, their roles etc. She examines the careers of the Macedonian royal wives, including Olympias, their fates and that of their offspring. She then turns to the court in Asia and the women, Greek and non-Greek, who had numerous roles and relationships unique to that context. Carney notes that these royal women, along with others connected to the court, had comparable influence and experiences to the high-status men with whom they were associated. Hugh Bowden follows this with a chapter on religion across Alexander’s empire and the latter’s unique and complicated spiritual/ritual relationship with his subjects. This is particularly helpful in disambiguating those multifaceted roles. Bowden concludes, quite rightly based on the evidence available, that Alexander never personally demanded to be worshipped as a god and does not appear to have embraced divine status outside of Egypt, where it was expected of him as pharaoh.

Moving only marginally away from court politics, Carolyn Willekes examines the Macedonian army, including the reforms of Philip II and Alexander. She especially considers the ‘combined arms approach’ used in multiple famous battles such as Issus and Granicus and which is, in its modern form, embraced by militaries of the world today, with Macedon acknowledged as the first historical example. Keeping with that theme, F. S. Naiden’s chapter follows on Alexander’s modern military reputation. This is a chapter on receptions and canvases ancient, medieval, Renaissance, Napoleonic and more recent times. Considerable emphasis is placed on Carl von Clausewitz and Martin van Creveld and J.F.C. Fuller. Oddly missing, or only obliquely referenced, was General George S. Patton Jr., who was a notable imitator Alexandri, who wrote multiple essays and lectures about the Macedonian and who considered the siege of Tyre to be the first example of tank-based warfare. The next chapter by Kyle Erickson shifts to finance and coinage, as wars have to be paid for, after all. He attempts to assess just how much wealth Alexander possessed and how it was spent. He considers also the symbolism of coinage as well as other, non-monetary wealth. Maxim M. Kholod’s chapter on administration within the empire connects well with Erickson’s. Kholod has devised a detailed breakdown of regions and cities and has attempted to ascertain, from the available sources, how they were administered. He notes the choices for satraps, how more non-Macedonians were preferred after Gaugamela, and how Alexander used existing Achaemenid structures but altered them with Argead conventions. Antonio I. G. Marin’s chapter rounds off this part of the volume with an examination of Greek geography at the time of Alexander. As that discipline was still developing, Alexander’s anabasis may be viewed at once as a geographical and scientific (especially botanical) expedition, albeit intimately linked with the king’s implicit agenda of conquest.

Part III addresses the historical and biographical tradition. Daniel W. Leon opens it with a chapter on Arrian, entailing a thorough examination of his sources, concluding that his is a complex representation of Alexander that is “difficult to pin down” (p. 346). Philip Bosman takes up the theme with a close study of Plutarch and his sources, somewhat sidestepping N.G.L. Hammond’s arguments about those, and considering the biography to offer both inspiration and warning. Elizabeth Baynham next grapples with Curtius Rufus and the myriad problems that he entails as a source, particularly his bias for projecting his own Roman context and agendas onto the history of Alexander. She covers these matters in depth, concluding that, while Rufus has written a decent military history, he has also produced a “cardboard cut-out of a ruthless tyrant” for reasons of his own. Ptolemy and Aristobolus feature in Frances Pownall’s chapter, tracing their own histories as well as Arrian’s choice of them as sources.  Luisa Prandi next examines Cleitarchus, as much as possible, in context. This was a very in-depth chapter, and a difficult subject; but it was surprising not to see Andrew Chugg, who has done considerable work on this, referenced somewhat more here. Christian Thrue Djurslev aptly closes this section with ‘the rest’: “Callisthenes, Chares, Nearchus, Onesicritus and the Mystery of the the Royal Journals”. Each is considered in context, lamenting the lack of source material available. It might have been helpful, perhaps, to have a chapter just on Callisthenes.

The last section, Part IV, is explicitly on receptions and opens with another chapter by Ogden on the immediate successors of Alexander and their use of his image. Sulochana Asirvatham next considers Roman emperors and their obsession with the Macedonian. She illustrates how considerable imagery and tropes concerning him derive from their receptions. Another chapter from Christian Thrue Djurslev follows on the subject of the Greek Alexander Romance, seeking the lost ‘Alpha’ recension, outlining the structure, source issues and context across eras and cultures. Alexandra Klęczar’s chapter addresses themes of Alexander as represented in Jewish and early Christian tradition, as not a single entity but “disparate, fragmentary projections” (p. 485). Agnieszka Fulinska’s chapter on Alexander in art comes next, considering the difficulty of accurate representation and leitmotifs of certain elements in sculpture, coins, and paintings spanning multiple eras up to the present. This final chapter is beautifully illustrated, and the work concludes with a detailed and annotated timeline (from 356-321 BC) by Ogden.

Authors and Titles

Introduction, Daniel Ogden

Part I – Alexander’s Life and Career

1. Alexander’s Birth and Childhood, Daniel Ogden
2. The Crises Leading up to Alexander’s Accession, Daniel Ogden
3. Alexander and the Greeks, Borja Antela-Bernárdez
4. To the Ends of the World: What the Campaign Was All About, Edward M. Anson
5. Alexander and Egypt, Timothy Howe
6. Alexander and the Persian Empire, Sabine Müller
7. Alexander and India, Richard Stoneman
8. Alexander’s Death, Last Plans and Burial, Joseph Roisman

Part II – Contexts

9. Macedonia, Carol J. King
10. Kingship, William S. Greenwalt
11. Court and Companions, Jeanne Reames
12. Changes and Challenges at Alexander’s Court, Jeanne Reames
13. The Women of Alexander’s Court, Elizabeth D. Carney
14. Religion, Hugh Bowden
15. Army and Warfare, Carolyn Willekes
16. Alexander’s Modern Military Reputation, F. S. Naiden
17. Finance and Coinage, Kyle Erickson
18. The Administration of Alexander’s Empire, Maxim M. Kholod
19. Geography, Science and Knowledge of the World, Antonio Ignacio Molina Marín

Part III – The Historical and Biographical Tradition

20. Arrian’s Alexander, Daniel W. Leon
21. Plutarch’s Alexander, Philip Bosman
22. Curtius’ Alexander, Elizabeth Baynham
23. Ptolemy and Aristobulus, Frances Pownall
24. Clitarchus’ Alexander, Luisa Prandi
25. Callisthenes, Chares, Nearchus, Onesicritus and the Mystery of the Royal Journals, Christian Thrue Djurslev

Part IV – The Ancient World’s Memory of Alexanderpp 423-517

26. The Successors and the Image of Alexander, Daniel Ogden
27. Alexander and The Roman Emperors, Sulochana Asirvatham
28. The Alexander Romance, Christian Thrue Djurslev
29. Alexander in Jewish and Early Christian Literature, Aleksandra Klęczar
30. Alexander in Ancient Art, Agnieszka Fulińska