[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review.]
Despite the antiquity of her cult, the Greek goddess Eileithyia, attested as e-re-u-ti-ja as early as the Mycenaean period in the Knossos tablets and mentioned in the Iliad, has received scant attention in both books and articles. Paul Baur published the very first monograph on Eileithyia in 1902, and a second book was published in 1981 by Semele Pingiatoglou. We can add to these bibliographical references an article published in 2013 by Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge and Gabriela Pironti analysing the many faces of the goddess.[1] Nevertheless, she was worshipped in numerous sanctuaries throughout the Greek world, and her cult is well attested by literary and epigraphical sources as well as by archaeology. The Tsoutsouros cave, located on the territory of the ancient Cretan city of Inatos, had not been the subject of systematic publication since excavations began in 1962 under the aegis of Costis Davaras and Nikolaos Platon. In addition to the discoveries made on site, numerous objects previously looted and subsequently confiscated by Greek authorities have been added to the collections of the Heraklion Museum. A selected catalog was first published in Greek in 2011 under the title Ελουθια Χαριστηιον, referring to a Roman votive inscription discovered at the site. While the circulation of this book was limited, this situation has now been rectified with the publication of this collected volume in English, accompanied by a richly illustrated catalog. Another book, also published in 2022, is devoted more specifically to the Egyptian artifacts unearthed in the cave, and further volumes are planned, notably devoted to the bronze and gold objects and jewelry discovered there.[2]
The first chapter of this book is devoted to the history of research carried out around the cave since the 1960s. It is followed by a second, richly illustrated chapter by Calliope Galanaki and Christina Papadaki presenting both the topography and the history of the site, which has been occupied since the Neolithic period. Chapter 3 details the history of the excavations, drawing on the daybooks of archaeologists Platon and Davaras. Chapter 4 briefly outlines the main features of the cult of Eileithyia in the Greek world in general. The author, Petros Themelis, presents the results of excavations he carried out at Messene and on Mount Ithomè, highlighting the recurring role played by the goddess in connection with accounts of the birth of Zeus throughout the Greek world. To these Cretan and Messenian records should be added the cult of Eileithyia in Elis, where she was closely associated with the cult of Sôsipolis, a “local god” according to Pausanias, whose features strongly evoke the child Zeus.
Chapter 5 gives a brief overview of the archaeological material unearthed in the cave. These objects highlight the continuity of cult practices linked to fertility and childbirth from the Bronze Age to Roman times in the Tsoutsouros cave. The discovery of several figurines of the Minoan Goddess with upraised arms suggests continuity between her and Eileithyia in their attributes. While the oldest finds date back to the pre-palatial period, most of the objects studied date from the Geometric, Archaic, and Orientalizing periods. The figurines unearthed are closely linked to the field of fertility, featuring erotic scenes, depictions of pregnant women, and scenes of childbirth. These artefacts are particularly valuable for those interested in the history of childbirth in the ancient world. Similar scenes are attested elsewhere in the Greek world, particularly in Cyprus, but they are from a much later period (5th century BCE). The cave also yielded several kourotrophoi figurines, which, according to Athanasia Kanta, represent not deities but devotees. More surprisingly at first glance, models of boats were also discovered in the cave. The association between the patron goddess of birth and infancy, periods of eminent peril, and the protection of sailors is indeed demonstrated elsewhere in the Greek world, notably in sanctuaries of Hera. Some of Tsoutsouros’ boat models feature a small human figure. It’s tempting to identify the fetus and the metaphor of its voyage of danger, from the womb, a motif well attested in Mesopotamian incantations accompanying birth. The assemblage of objects bears witness to medium- and long-distance exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean. Those figurines and models are presented in chapter 10.
In chapter 6, Georgia Flouda reviews the attestations of Eileithyia in the Linear B tablets and provides stimulating reflections on the etymology of the theonym as associated with the idea of arrival or liberation. Chapter 7 by Massimo Perna is devoted to a Linear A inscription found inside a miniature vase (itself presented in the following chapter), the meaning of which still eludes scholars. Chapter 8 presents a selection of 75 Minoan-period pottery items, including both full-size and miniature vases, mainly dating from the Protopalatial to the Orientalizing periods. The site has yielded few ceramics from the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Each object is described in detail and accompanied by one or more high-quality illustrations. Excavations have also uncovered many krateriskoi. These vases are widely attested in Attica, particularly in the sanctuaries of Artemis at Brauron and Mounychia, which hosted ritual practices related to pregnancy and birth. Krateriskoi therefore appear to constitute a category of vases whose cultic use was specific to ritual practices linked to childhood and motherhood throughout the Greek world.
The cult of Eileithyia at Tsoutsouros seems to have been briefly dormant in the Classical and Hellenistic periods before resuming in the Roman period, as attested by the revival of ceramics dating from this period, as presented by Dimitris Grigoropoulos in chapter 9. This pottery mainly consist of Cretan amphorae and lamps. Chapter 10, some sixty pages long, is devoted to the figurines and terracotta models unearthed in the sanctuary and dated from the Middle Minoan to the Hellenistic Periods.
Athanasia Kanta presents in chapter 11 the double axes of clay and bronze discovered in the cave dating from the Early Iron Age to the Geometric and Early Orientalizing period. Chapter 12 is devoted to the jewelry and other small objects found in the sanctuary. In chapter 13 and 14, Athanasia Kanta, Danae Kontopodi and Richard H. Wilkinson study and present the offerings of Egyptian type.[3]
The thematic and chronological presentation of the artefacts in this catalog contributes to the discussion on the continuity of the cult of a childbirth deity from the Minoan period to the Roman period in the Tsoutsouros cave, starting from her attestation as e-re-u-ti-ja during the Mycenaean period and known as Eileithyia afterwards. The revival of Eileithyia’s cult during the Roman period is a striking aspect that can be observed in other places. In Athens, for example, the goddess’ worship is attested from the end of the 5th century BCE and appears to have been revitalized at the beginning of the 1st century CE. At that time, Eileithyia emerges more as a deity associated with the protection of familial relationships than solely as a birth goddess. The number of Roman lamps unearthed in the Tsoutsouros cave also suggest a radical change in the rituals, whose details are sadly unknown to us.
The artefacts presented also highlight the various attributions of the goddess worshipped here, whose realm extends to womanhood and fertility in general. Additionally, the boat clay models unearthed in the sanctuary suggest Eileithyia’s association with birth metaphorically as well as with trade and seafaring. Indeed, Eileithyia appears to have been a far more significant deity in Crete than is traditionally thought. Generally speaking, it is now necessary to reassess the place of this goddess in the ancient divine network as she is not “just” a birth goddess.
The annotated catalog of selected artefacts discovered in the Tsoutsouros Cave sheds light on the various aspects of the Eileithyia. It will serve as a valuable resource in understanding the spread and the evolution of her worship throughout the Greek world. Indeed, our perception of Eileithyia needs to be reevaluated in light of this publication and recent discoveries, including those made in Olympia and Messene in the past decades.
Authors and Titles
Preface: Athanasia Kanta, History of the Study of the Material
- Athanasia Kanta and Costis Davaras, History of the Excavation and Research on the Cave
- Calliope E. Galanaki and Christina Papadaki, Note on Topography and History
- Eleftherios Platon, The Excavation of the Inatos (Tsoutsouros) Cave
- Petros Themelis, Encomium to Eileithyia
- Athanasia Kanta, Worship of Eileithyia in the Inatos Cave
- Georgia Flouda, The Goddess Eileithyia in the Knossian Linear B Tablets
- Massimo Perna, A Linear A Inscription from the Cave (INA Zb 1)
- Athanasia Kanta and Danae Z. Kontopodi, Selection of Pottery from the Cave
- Dimitris Grigoropoulos, Pottery of the Roman Period
- Athanasia Kanta, Figurines and Models
- Athanasia Kanta, Double Axes
- Athanasia Kanta, Minor Objects, Jewelry, and Copper or Copper Alloy Bowls
- Athanasia Kanta and Danae Z. Kontopodi, Votive Offerings of Egyptian Type
- Richard H. Wilkinson, Catalog of Selected Artifacts of Egyptian Type
Notes
[1] Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge, Gabriela Pironti, “Ilithyie au travail. De la mère à l’enfant”, Dossier: Mères et maternités en Grèce ancienne, Éditions de l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales, Paris, 2013, p. 71–91.
[2] Günther Hölbl, The shrine of Eileithyia, Minoan goddess of childbirth and motherhood at the Inatos cave in southern Crete. Volume I, The Egyptian-type artifacts, INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia, 2022.
[3] The whole catalog of these Egyptian-type artefacts is now available in the same series, see reference fn. 2.