BMCR 2023.10.02

Neues Licht aus Pompeji

, , , , , Neues Licht aus Pompeji. München; Oppenheim am Rhein: Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; Staatliche Antikensammlung; Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2022. Pp. 511. ISBN 9783961762071.

Review by

[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review]

 

Ruth Bielfeldt and her collaborators have created a paradigm-changing exhibition on an aspect of ancient Roman life that has received little scholarly attention: artificial light. Most scholars investigating Roman interiors, whether those of houses or public buildings, see them in daylight or with the aid of modern electric light or evenly-lit photographs. These unquestioned practices cause us to miss a sense experience vital to the myriad nighttime activities that took place in Roman interiors. The exhibition foregrounded the sensory effects of oil lamps with great thoroughness and enviable imagination. Fortunately for those unable to have seen the exhibition in either of its versions (Munich, Staatliche Antikensammlungen, December 2022-May 2023; Rome, Musei Capitolini, Villa Caffarelli, July-November 2023), this splendidly-produced, well-illustrated catalogue stands as a full record of the research and its often-astonishing results.

This is an unusual exhibition catalogue. Rather than offering several long essays followed by catalogue entries, it consists of 48—mostly brief—chapters organized by twelve themes and authored by 35 individuals. (See below for my translation of the theme- and chapter-titles.) It’s a divide-and-conquer approach that addresses the entire gamut of research, from the conservation of the bronzes to the reproduction of two ancient lamps; from the visual perception of illuminated interiors to its recreation in virtual reality; from iconographical studies of lighting utensils to their effects in the lived spaces of ancient Pompeii. Because of this comprehensive approach, this catalogue stands as an up-to-date source in three different areas: the iconography of ancient bronze lamps and bronze objects—most notably tray-holders associated with the banquet; the scientific study of bronze; and the sensory effects of artificial light for ancient Roman viewers.

Although the catalog cannot provide the multimedia and hands-on experiences of visitors, several on-line resources help envision them.[1] Fundamental to the production of the exhibition and the catalog was the analysis and restoration of more than 170 bronze objects—many of them unpublished—loaned by the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli to the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich in preparation for the exhibition. Bielfeldt and her team conducted the scientific analysis of the bronzes (chs. 11 and 12) and created a cast copy of the famous Bat Lamp, discovered in 1761 and published by Winckelmann (ch. 13). (Visitors were encouraged to handle the Bat Lamp—surprisingly heavy!) Another group of researchers collaborated to recreate triclinium EE of the House of Julius Polybius in virtual reality, so that visitors could light and extinguish lamps to see their effects on the space and its decor (chs. 11, 15, 16, 17 and 18).

Bielfeldt’s introductory essay (ch. 1) humanizes lighting tools and proposes that they are not just objects but keys that can unlock experiences quite foreign to our contemporary sensorium. Citing the prologue to Aristophanes’ Ecclesiasusae (1-13), she proposes that for ancient Greeks and Romans, the fire (or eye) of the lamp flame was alive (21-22). It follows that the Romans inherited and developed the conceit that the lamp was a living creature that took myriad forms to inhabit their spaces and accompany the wide variety of nighttime activities explored in this catalogue.

Franken’s essay makes the point that, unlike the archaeological research on ceramic lamps, bronze lamps have received relatively little attention in the literature (ch. 3). Both in form and in iconography, they differ greatly from their cousins in clay and offer new perspectives on the creative powers of the artisans who produced them as well as the mentalities of those who bought and used them.

Chapters 4 and 6 directly address the question of how lamps functioned in the ancient Mediterranean. Pfisterer-Haas and Valsamidou provide an overview of the many ways that humans brought artificial light into their lives, from pine torches to candles and lanterns. Eber, Blänsdorf, and Mazzola address the materials needed to create artificial light, with special attention to lamps with preserved wicks.

Bielfeldt’s account of the many bronze lampstands included in the exhibition draws attention to the elegant and elaborate forms of their feet and holders—including refined details revealed in the process of conservation (ch. 7). Klatt introduces a particularly interesting technical innovation, attested throughout the empire: candelabra whose height could be adjusted by inserting a pin into the shaft above Janus-form busts. These fixing-pins hang on tiny chains from eyelets attached to one of the struts of the herm (ch. 8).

Metallurgist and conservator Giumlia-Mair’s chapters (11 and 12) provide important new information on the chemistry of ancient bronzes and their often- magnificent decoration, including inlays and patinas. Her work and that of a team of conservators (chs. 46-48) is vital, as well, to the understanding the many modern additions to lamps found in excavations in the area buried by Vesuvius. Based on Giumlia-Mair’s thermoluminescence studies, Lehner and Herzog, of Lehner Foundry in St. Gallen, Switzerland, created the cast of the Bat Lamp (ch. 13). Whereas Giumlia-Mair’s archaeometric analysis, using the full range of new tools, especially XRF (X-ray flourescence), constitutes a major contribution to metallurgical analysis (and to our understanding of the fabled Corinthium aes), the work of Lehner and Herzog provides new insights on the complexities of casting and finishing the elegant bronzes seen in the exhibition. Clearly this body of research on bronze casting and finishing has important applications beyond the lamps in the exhibition.

The section “Light and Space” begins with an overview of triclinium EE of the House of Julius Polybius (IX, 13, 1-3) coauthored by Eber, Esposito, and Nuzzo (ch. 14). The rationale for choosing this space is clear: not only is it the largest and—originally—the best-decorated room in this important house, it also provides one of the most complete ensembles of fine bronze objects excavated in modern times at Pompeii. In 1978, in a deep lapilli layer in the southeast corner, excavators uncovered a magnificent kouros tray-holder, the frames of three klinai, table ware, vessels for washing diners’ feet, and lighting fixtures (figs. 14.12-14-21). Although the Third-Style frescoes remain only on the east and north walls, a good-quality center picture of The Punishment of Dirce is nearly intact. However, rough plaster on the north and west walls tells us that the heavy damage observed elsewhere in the house had brought down the frescoes in these areas. As elsewhere in Pompeii, it is likely that the owner planned to restore the frescoes to their former splendor with imitation Third-Style decoration.[2] Despite its incomplete status, the authors argue that, given the presence of the klinai and the furnishings temporarily assembled in the room, triclinium EE was repeatedly in use at the time of the eruption (123).

Nuzzo presents a new study of the elegant bronze tray-holder (ch. 15). Scholars have long noted its relation to the archaic kouros found at Piraeus (fig. 15.5) and the Apollo from Piombino (fig. 15.8). In this Roman version from the mid-first century BCE, the kouros became a tray-bearer with the insertion of foliated bronze supports into the hands and the addition of an ornate crown. Although three further examples have come to light from Pompeii, none is archaizing.

To get the rest of the story, the reader must turn to Bielfeldt’s chapters 19 and 20. Looking at the four tray-holders together, one quickly realizes how different they are from one another (figs. 19.4-19.7). Two of them (from the House of the Ephebe and from the Fondo Barbatelli) are redolent of fifth-century classical models and Augustan neo-classicism, whereas the tray- and lamp-holder from the House of Fabius Rufus is clearly of Hellenistic inspiration. The tray-holder found in the atrium of the House of the Ephebe (I, 7, 11) is the largest—about 20 cm taller than the other three.[3] Surprisingly, it is a pastiche; the artisans joined a female head to the classicizing body (cat. 5). The Barbatelli tray-holder shows greater stylistic unity, despite multiple ancient and modern repairs (cat. 8), whereas the most elaborate ephebe, from the House of Fabius Rufus, looks to Hellenistic models. What is more, the artist gave him the job of holding both a tray and—in his upraised right arm—a lamp.

Bielfeldt brings these statues to life by arguing that they embody the perfect banquet slave. In addition to light produced by lamps, they constituted “slave light” (Sklavenlicht), reminding us of the equation of slaves as things—both in art and in life. Bielfeldt argues that they are polysemous—more than mere banquet furniture. Whereas their forms recall gods like Apollo and Dionysus, they evoke the Greek artistic tradition of the ideal yet anonymous young man as kouros or grave figure. With the addition of the tray (jarring to our modern sensibility) they encode Roman slavery.

Particularly original is Bielfeldt’s discussion of the two examples of lamps with dancing male figures (ch. 19). Rather than seeing them as cinaedi,[4] she proposes that we are seeing a slave dancing on his “free day” at the Saturnalia (175). In chapter 20 Bielfeldt provides a full account of the ephebe tray-holder from the Fondo Barbatelli, a bronze workshop uncovered in 1900 north of the Vesuvius Gate. A 3d model demonstrated how workshops created bronze statues by piecing individually-molded body parts is the (fig. 20.9).

Although some readers expecting a catalogue of lighting instruments might object that the tray-holders may not have always held lamps as well as food, their inclusion is essential to understanding the Roman cena as a Gesamtkunstwerk. So, too, the presentation of food and drink-warmers by Pfisterer-Haas (ch. 26). The autothepsa, or “self-boiler,” is a type of samovar represented in the catalogue by an astonishingly refined and well-preserved example (cat. 159). Equally ingenious in design is a three-part plate warmer with a bearded barbarian serving as its handle (cat. 158). Refined charcoal braziers (ch. 27) round out this overview of bronze furnishings whose heat served the needs of the cena.

The most original chapter results from Bielfeldt’s research on the shadows cast by lamps (ch. 28). The experiments were carried out with replicas of two lamps with complex figures on their filler-lids (a Silenus and the dancer discussed in ch. 19). Photographs demonstrate the great variations in the sharpness, size, and number of shadows cast by the figures. The dancer lamp, with its polished reflector, adds a mirror image to this mix of visual enchantment. These experiments go a long way toward demonstrating that—beyond the usual utilitarian framework modern archaeologists apply to lamps—ancient Romans could enjoy playing with lamps and their shadows. Like recent work on touching silver banqueting vessels,[5] Bielfeldt’s work brings the Roman cena—and by extension the ancient perceptual apparatus—to life.

 

Authors and Titles

Introductory Essays

  1. The many lives of ancient lamps (Ruth Bielfeldt)
  2. The Roman house in dialogue with light (Danilo Marco Campanaro)

Roman Lamps and Light

  1. Roman bronze lamps: On the History of Research on a Yet-to-be Discovered Archaeological Genre (Norbert Franken)
  2. How the Mediterranean began to shine. Light cultures of pre-Roman times (Susanne Pfisterer-Haas and Magdalini Valsamidou)
  3. Hellenistic fine lamps from Pompeii (Norbert Franken)
  4. Wick, oil, and fire (Johannes Eber)

Lamp Stands and Candelabra

  1. High up and ardently sought-after. Roman candelabra (Ruth Bielfeldt and Silvia Amadori)
  2. The attraction of flexibility. Height-adjustable candelabra as a technical innovation (Ute Klatt)
  3. Light over Africa and Asia. On the geopolitics of a lamp-stand (Ulrich Hofstätter)
  4. Lamp trees: From the groves of the Greek gods to the Roman house (Silvia Amadori)

Bronze. A material in the light

11.The luster of bronze: On the art of metal- and surface treatment (Alessandra Giumlia-Mair)

  1. Corinthium aes: Artificially-patinated alloys (Alessandra Giumlia-Mair)
  2. The cast of the bat-bilychnis: A report on practical experiment (Felix Lehner and Olaf Herzog)

Light and Space

  1. Light in a space. Triclinium EE in the House of Julius Polybius (Johannes Eber, Domenico Esposito, and Elsa Nuzzo)
  2. Kouros with a crown. The statue of ‘Apollo’ from triclinium EE (Elsa Nuzzo)
  3. From luminance measurement to virtual simulation. On modeling the visual perception of illuminated interiors (Lars Grobe and Andreas Noback)
  4. From analog to digital. Procedures for the three-dimensional documentation of ancient lighting objects (Manuel Hunziker)
  5. The ‘virtual triclinium’. An interactive virtual-reality-scenario of triclinium EE (Susanne Bosche, Lars Grobe, Manuel Hunziker, Elisabeth Mayer, Viktoriia Trubina, Johannes Eber, and Ruth Bielfeldt)

Lamps and the Roman Feast

  1. The sensuality of the social. The Roman cena and its lighting (Ruth Bielfeldt)
  2. From the workshop. The Barbatelli ephebe (Ruth Bielfeldt)
  3. Head-lamps: The luxurious light-servant (Rolf Michael Schneider)
  4. Stage light. Theatrical masks on lamps (Vanessa Heiduck):
  5. Fighting against the flame. The ape-gladiator and the performative lamp (Johannes Eber)
  6. Friendly companions and wild companions. Dolphin- and panther-lamps (Silvia Vornweg)
  7. Lamps that taste good (Ulrich Hofstätter and Ruth Bielfeldt)
  8. ‘You will not lack water, whether cold or warm:’ Drink- and food-warmers at the heart of the feast (Susanne Pfisterer-Haas)
  9. Mobile embers: Prestigious charcoal-braziers for heating (Philippa Maske)

Light and Shadow

  1. Apparatuses of amazement. The shadow- and mirror-images of Roman statuette lamps (Ruth Bielfeldt)
  2. Bronze lamps with lid figures (Norbert Franken)

The Roman Night

  1. Carpe noctem. A stroll through the Roman night (Amelie Lutz)
  2. From dusk till dawn. The animals of the twilight (Laura Zinn)
  3. Keep quiet! Watchful geese and their lamps (Berglind Hatje)

Lamps and Eroticism

  1. Come on, baby, light my fire. Lamps and the ancient art of love (Amelie Lutz and Anne Merten)
  2. Fire up souls in the chill of the night. Roman torchbearers (Viktoria Räuchle)
  3. A rediscovery. The lamp-bearer of Aulus Pumponius Magonianus (Alessandra Giumlia-Mair, Ruth Bielfeldt, and Johannes Eber)
  4. Passionate and hot. The lamp in the myth of Cupid and Psyche (David Richter)

Lamps in Religion and Cult

  1. Divine glow: Lamps in the cults of the Roman house (Johannes Eber)
  2. Jupiter in the lamp format (Norbert Franken)
  3. My foot shines: Roman foot-lamps in context (Hannah Rathschlag)

Beyond the House

  1. Light in the shop. Hanging lamps with tabula ansata (Amelie Lutz)
  2. On a secret mission? A bronze lamp from Pompeii with a punched inscription (Markus Scholz)
  3. Phallos, fire, sound. Tintinnabula from Pompei (Susanne Pfisterer-Haas)

The Rediscovery of Ancient Light

  1. Lampstands with (almost) ancient find-contexts. Capricci from the Bourbon restoration workshops (Ruth Bielfeldt and Alessandra Giumlia-Mair)
  2. Additions, reproductions, or fakes? (Alessandra Giumlia-Mair)
  3. Ludwig’s model house. The Pompeianum on the Main (Florian Knauß)

Conservation

  1. A catastrophe for people and things. The eruption of Vesuvius of 79 CE (Susanne Bosche)
  2. The fate of lamps. Observations on the restoration of bronzes from Pompeii (Ingrid Reindell)
  3. The appearance of bronze. A question of restoration (Hagen Schaaff)

Catalogue

Includes 181 entries on ancient objects, with entries 182-188 on contemporary lighting designed by Ingo Maurer

 

Notes

[1] “Neues Licht aus Pompeji in den staatlichen Antikensammlungen in München,” accessed 7/29/23; “Forschungsausstellung „Neues Licht aus Pompeji” in den Staatlichen Antikensammlungen,” accessed 7/29/23; “Nuova Luce da Pompei a Roma,” accessed 7/29/23.

[2]Wolfgang Ehrhardt, Dekorations- und Wohnkontext: Beseitigung, Restaurierung, Verschmelzung und Konservierung von Wandbemalungen in den kampanischen Antikenstätten, Palilia (Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2012).

[3]I was unable to determine its exact height: “Zusammen mit der Basis ist sie 1,49 Meter hoch.” (166); “H (Statue) 153.0 cm; H (Basis): 5,0 cm” (cat. 5).

[4] See now Jesse Wiener and Tommaso Gazzari, eds., Searching for the Cinaedus in Classical Antiquity (Leiden: Brill, 2023).

[5]Heather Hunter-Crawley, “Classical Archaeology and the Senses: A Paradigmatic Shift?” The Routledge Handbook of Sensory Archaeology, ed. Robin Skeates and Jo Day (New York: Routledge, 2020) 434–50.