Cleopatra, as a historical character, has been the subject to much debate. In spite of being a victim of the misogynistic views of classical historians, in recent years modern scholars have tried to liberate her from a negative narrative. There is a long list of research articles that have approached Cleopatra from a scholarly perspective[1]; some monographs have also tried to address the issue, and Legras’ work is the epitome of this tradition[2]. Legras makes extensive use of non-Roman sources (some of which have been recently made available or discovered[3]) that results in a more objective and colourful depiction of the Egyptian queen.
From the beginning, the author demonstrates his intention to leave aside the negative image created by authors who inherited the historical tradition developed after the Battle of Actium. Although Cleopatra has passed into eternity as an “Egyptian” and a “seductress”, the author leaves these adjectives aside in order to study the true character. Earlier dependence on classical sources has turned the study of the events of this period into a pro-Roman and anti-Ptolemaic historiography, which has survived for centuries. The analysis of a whole range of new sources that have appeared since the beginning of the 21st century is the main innovation of this book. The subject is developed in six chapters that combine a chronological perspective and a thematic approach.
The first chapter gives a chronological overview of Cleopatra’s early years, which were marked by her father’s exile and his intention to maintain Egypt’s independence. The author expresses here that Ptolemy XII would have provided his daughter with the necessary training in diplomatic relations. Legras also addresses Cleopatra’s education before her accession to the throne. There is a lack of sources on the queen’s formative years, but the author discusses here the general features of education in the Ptolemaic court, which leads to the image of the literate woman that has been conveyed by the historical tradition. When dealing with the subject of her rise to power, the author argues that Cleopatra would have shared power with her father in his last years (52-51 BC).
The second chapter covers Cleopatra’s first years in power with her brother Ptolemy XIII and her transition to sole ruler after the Roman intervention. The course of the fight between siblings is permanently marked by the outcome of the war between Caesar and Pompey, especially when Pompey was assassinated in Egypt by his former supporters. Caesar would determine the result of the war between siblings by supporting Cleopatra in a contest that ultimately resulted in a clash between Egyptian and Alexandrian nationalism against the attempted Roman domination. Caesar eventually triumphed, however, and placed Cleopatra and her brother, Ptolemy XIV, in power. The latter’s early demise cleared the path for Cleopatra and her son, Ptolemy XV Caesar, to rule.
In the third chapter, Legras puts forward the idea that Cleopatra ruled the kingdom of Egypt with the intention of alleviating the crisis into which it was plunged when she rose to power. Her actions are shown to be completely independent of Roman tutelage, focusing on specific measures concerning corruption, the administration of the country, and the minting of money. Regarding Rome, her trips to the capital after Caesar’s triumph are argued to be aimed at establishing her power and having her sovereignty recognised. Her efforts seem to have eased the suffering of her subjects towards the middle of her rule. Legras demonstrates that some of the state corruption was never solved, nevertheless, and that some later measures were aimed at continuing to alleviate the problem; eventually, these measures also helped to re-establish the treasury before the war against Octavian.
The fourth chapter is one of the most interesting sections in terms of source analysis, as it discusses the image of Cleopatra as a seductive queen who undermined Antony’s independence in the events leading up to 34 BC. Legras explores the relationship between Antony and Cleopatra, seeking to understand the political and strategic benefits it offered to both of them—Cleopatra sought to maintain the independence of Egypt and to resume the imperialist policies of her predecessors. Thus, the presentation of the chronological events starts with the meeting in Tarsus following Caesar’s assassination, the bonds and agreements established between the two, and the political-religious symbolism attached to meetings during this period. The author shows how the Tarentum agreements and the decision to wage war against the Parthians were mutually beneficial moves, meeting strategic needs for the war, on the one hand, and giving fuel to Egypt’s imperialist aspirations, on the other. Egypt would provide the naval force for Antony’s expedition in an effort to revive the Ptolemaic thalassocracy. The Parthian defeat did not deter the “triumph” at Alexandria after the capture of the Parthian capital and the so-called “donations” to the children of the queen and Antony. The author acknowledges, however, that the events of 34 BC did not substantially change the strategic balance of the Antioch agreements.
The chapter on the queen’s relationship with the Egyptian upper class is based on evidence of associations between the priestly elites and the queen. The queen was exceptionally active in the founding and construction of Egyptian temples, and in donations to them; furthermore, texts and reliefs on temples indicate the loyalty of the clergy, all of which would have led to a reciprocal relationship. The rapport with the Greek priestly elite must also have been positive because Cleopatra used the assimilation of Hellenistic deities as a way of legitimising her power and propaganda, and the author claims that the Greek priests would have felt “honoured”. The assimilation of deities continues throughout the period, reaching its peak with the identification of the sacred marriage between Cleopatra and Antony with those of Isis-Serapis or Aphrodite-Dionysus. The continuous concessions of asylum rights demonstrate the good relations throughout the period, which would also extend to the Jewish elites, as can be seen in epigraphic sources.
The last chapter is focused on assessing the queen’s policies until her death. Legras analyses the composition of Cleopatra’s armies and questions whether her death takes place in a Greek or an Egyptian ideological context. The conclusion is that, despite the presence of Roman troops in Egypt from (at least) 55 BC onwards, the army of the Lagids still included native Egyptians. He then turns to the events that led to the final Egyptian defeat in 30 BC in order to understand them from a military point of view. He dismisses the idea that Antony committed suicide after being convinced by Cleopatra as just another piece of Augustan propaganda and agrees with Velleius Paterculus that it was an act of honour suicide after a military defeat. He goes on to study Cleopatra’s last days, when she attempts to gain some freedom in order to commit suicide. The issue of suicide by snakebite or poisoning is also contested. Legras then goes on to discuss the symbolic implications of the queen’s death, which takes the form of a final revenge on Octavian, depriving him of the possibility of parading her in his triumph.
To sum up, the book lives up to expectations. It intends to address the image of Cleopatra, setting aside past misogynistic views determined by the portrayal created by Augustan propaganda, and, to this end, the author makes extensive use of all the available pieces of evidence at his disposal, most notably the analysis of non-Roman sources, except for the periods of Cleopatra’s life for which we only have Roman literary sources. Even so, Legras attempts to find the truth behind the distortion of propaganda. As a result, a richer image of Cleopatra emerges than the one of a barbarian and seductive woman who found a way to subjugate two powerful Roman leaders. Instead, the book portrays a female sovereign determined to maintain the independence of her kingdom and improve its social and economic conditions using the resources at her disposal.
In formal terms, the work presents a robust critical apparatus, which is well written and has many useful footnotes, in contrast with other works on Cleopatra that display a purely narrative nature, and it is to be welcomed as a true and potent scientific work on her personality. The accompanying materials are also of great help, including the necessary maps of the areas covered in the work, illustrations, and family trees, as well as a substantial bibliography.
Finally, despite the quality of the book, some inconsistencies should be addressed. Although, as is repeatedly stated, the author’s intention is to construct an image of Cleopatra that is not determined by Augustan propaganda, the way in which Cleopatra is referred to in the early chapters of the book is, nevertheless, surprising. She is sometimes defined as “seductive” (pp. 75; 103), “bloodthirsty” (p. 95) or “cruel” (p. 97)). Curiously enough, as the work progresses, these references disappear and are not found again from the fourth chapter onwards. It may be that, in some cases, the author is echoing the words of ancient authors, but that is no excuse when, theoretically, his intention is to strip the object of his study of all misogynistic views and the negative propaganda from historical tradition. Notwithstanding the criticism, it should be noted that these are four references throughout the entire work, which do not tarnish the author’s effort or detract from the quality of the book. From the point of view of academic correctness, however, such statements should be reviewed.
Notes
[1] Bicknell, “Caesar, Antony, Cleopatra and Cyprus.” Latomus 36 (1977), 325-342; Skeat, “The last days of Cleopatra: A chronological problem”. JRC 43 (1953), 98-100; Reinhold, “The declaration of war against Cleopatra”. CJ 77/2 (1981), 97-103; Peek, “The expulsion of Cleopatra VII”. Ancient Society 38 (2008), 103-105; Greuel, “Coin with Portraits of Cleopatra and Mark Antony”. Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies 35 (2009), 34-93; Peek, “The Queen surveys her realm: The Nile Cruise of Cleopatra VII” CQ 16/2 (2011), 595-607, just to mention some.
[2] Among those works aimed at restoring the queen’s image: Chauveau. Cléopâtre. Au-delà du mythe. Paris, 1998; Ashton. Cleopatra and Egypt. New Jersey, 2008; De Callataÿ. Cléopâtre, usages et mésusages de son image. Brussels, 2015; Capponi. Cleopatra, storia e società. Bari, 2021, etc.
[3] To mention some: P. Bingen 45 or CPR XXVIII, published respectively in 2000 and 2008. In addition, the book also takes into account other recent archaeological findings.