When one thinks of animal encounters in the Argonautica, what first comes to mind is the golden ram, whose fleece is the goal of Jason’s quest, as well as the terrifying snake that guards it and the fire-breathing bulls that the hero has to yoke as a preliminary labor. These interactions feature in Mackay’s monograph, but the main asset of the book is her discussion of all the other animal occurrences as well, revealing that the Argonautica are in fact populated by numerous non-human creatures. Indeed, not only do animals appear in the main narrative as monstrous agents of trial and punishment, but they are also mentioned in more familiar scenes of hunting, sacrifice and battle or function as divine messengers. Moreover, animals are present in similes and make cameo appearances in the form of pelts and skins worn or displayed by epic characters. Mackay approaches these epic animal encounters from an intertextual perspective, comparing them to previous treatments of similar passage in order to show how Valerius Flaccus develops animal emotion and perception further than his predecessors.
The first chapter, “Empathy: Animal Experience in Simile,” investigates Valerius’ animal similes and their relationship to the human situations that they illustrate in the narrative with a focus on emotions. In her study of community dynamics, maternal suffering and life cycles in the animal world, Mackay highlights that, beyond their immediate relevance to the narrative situation, similes also reflect on other themes at play in the epic such as social cohesion, generic confusion and the cycle of trauma and recovery.
The second chapter, “Relating: Human/Animal Interactions.” explores the relationships between humans and animals in the narrative. Mackay splits the chapter into two parts: first she examines cases of human dominion over animals (through hunting, taming and sacrifice) and then she surveys cases of collaboration between men and dogs or horses in the context of battle. She reaches the conclusion that Valerius’ extended emotional characterization of animals in these situations indicates serious misgivings about the supposed moral superiority of humans, challenges traditional modes of interspecies relationships, and suggests that all beings are owed the same consideration.
The third chapter, “Identity: Human Appropriation of Animal Skins,” focuses exclusively on animal pelts and their usage by humans. Although Hercules and Jason are successful in their appropriation of the Nemean lion’s skin and the golden fleece, minor heroes fail to acknowledge the animal’s ethical value behind its utilitarian function, a mistake which leads to their death. Mackay therefore infers that this problematic depiction of the overlap of human and animal identity questions human dominion over animals. Unfortunately, the second half of this chapter lacks the valuable intertextual approach applied to other parts of the monograph and leaves the reader wondering what is special about Valerius’ representation of animal skins compared to previous authors.
The fourth chapter, “Presence: Animal Emissaries & Cult Companions,” is about animals as mediators between gods and men. The chapter deals with two types of animals: birds as representatives of Jupiter, which are perceived by men through sight, and feline companions of Cybele and Bacchus, which manifest themselves through roaring. Mackay remarks that the outcome of this type of interaction depends on the human’s ability to interpret correctly the animal’s divine significance and ranges from full success (Hypsipyle) to complete failure (Cyzicus).
The fifth and last chapter, “Serpentine Meditation on the Monstrous,” looks at snake-like creatures, from monsters with serpentine features (Neptune’s sea monster, Typhon, Amycus) to real snakes in a ritual setting at Cyzicus. The last part of the chapter is devoted to a study of Medea’s connection with snakes and dragons throughout the epic, culminating in her literarily unprecedented close relationship with the fleece’s slithery guardian. Neither entirely positive nor completely negative, Valerius’ serpentine monsters are depicted as complex figures, a nuanced description that brings them closer to the human characters, Mackay claims, and makes it easier for the reader to empathize with them.
A general conclusion sums up the book’s main argument: Valerius Flaccus goes further than his predecessors in his description of animal emotion and experience. This conclusion is then interpreted as a reflection of the poet’s contemporary world on various levels. It can be read as an indication of the poet’s self-positioning in the literary tradition, a comment on the shifting nature of power under the new dynastic rule of the Flavians, or thoughts of a more philosophical nature about the consideration due to animals in society.
In the appendix, Mackay supplies an index of references to animals in the Argonautica, presented first in the order of the text, then alphabetically by animal and by context. While this is a very useful tool for further research, it must be noted that these lists are in less polished form than the rest of the book and still contain what must have been the author’s notes as she was collecting and organizing the references. There follows a bibliography mostly centered on Valerian scholarship, a general index, and an index of passages.
Although the book is not organized chronologically, all passages are remarkably well contextualized and introduced, making it easy for the reader to understand the issues at stake. On the whole the monograph is thoughtfully structured and delivers what the author promises in the introduction: an intertextual study of passages featuring interactions between men and animals in Valerius’ Argonautica, with a focus on emotions. Indeed, Mackay does a good job of demonstrating Valerius’ reworking of the previous tradition and of showing how his departures from other texts can be significant in the context of the Argonautica. Perhaps less convincing is the periodically resurfacing suggestion that Valerius’ extended depiction of animal emotions reflects a shift in the perception of animals in contemporary Roman society. I leave it up to the reader to decide if he or she is willing to read that interpretation into Valerius’ Argonautica. I personally think that epic similes and heroic use of animal pelts are not the best place to look for that kind of evidence, because of the highly artificial and literary nature of these passages. In order to be fully convincing, Mackay’s suggestion would need to be backed by evidence from other texts more straightforwardly relevant to the historical context. Furthermore, her interpretation of animals in the Argonautica raises the question of comparison with other near-contemporary epic poets. Indeed, Statius and Silius both feature an array of intriguing human-animal interactions in which animals eventually get the upper hand (e.g. Stat. Theb. 6.424–427: horse refuses to obey Polynices; Ach. 1.858–863: tamed lion turns against its master; lion destroys cattle, village and its inhabitants: Sil. 2.689–691). Are these passages to be read as a literary play on the tradition or as a sign that Statius and Silius were staunch advocates of animal rights, in line with Valerius’ treatment of animal empathy? Mackay’s monograph certainly provides a tool to start thinking about that question.