[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review.]
This substantial volume publishes the proceedings of a 2016 conference on the Early Mycenaean, or Prepalatial, period in the Peloponnese and its adjacent islands in southern Greece. Ranging from the late Middle Helladic [MH] period (ca. 1750/1700 BCE) to the establishment of Mycenaean palaces early in the Late Helladic [LH] IIIA phase (early 14thcentury BCE), this formative period was significantly longer than the Palatial era itself. It was a time of competing local elites and the formation of a culture we call Mycenaean. Until recently this period was known primarily through funerary remains. This volume contains the results of recent studies and excavations of settlements and elite buildings, which throw new light on this important era.
The stated goal of the conference was to provide a better understanding of the emergence of Mycenaean culture and palatial society out of the fairly egalitarian MH societies, and the impact of these societal changes on the landscape. Even though the explicit focus on landscape studies is not sustained throughout the entire volume, most papers in some form or another investigate how societies impacted the landscape through the building of settlements, tombs, or other monuments. The organizers also aimed to move away from the traditional emphasis on Mycenae and the Argolid plain, and to provide a more balanced view of developments in various regions of the Peloponnese. In this, they have succeeded admirably, as of the 29 papers published here, four focus on Triphylia and Zakynthos, eight on Messenia, three on Laconia and Kythera, two on Achaia and Arcadia (a much understudied area in the Bronze Age), and only five on the Argolid and Aegina. These papers demonstrate the political prominence of several of those regions, with Prepalatial elite tombs at Pylos, Kakovatos, and Pellana rivaling those at Mycenae. The overall impression, as the editors point out, is that of regional experimentation in elite buildings, tombs, and other forms of material culture at the end of the MH period and increasing convergence from the LH I phase onwards, leading eventually to the formation of a Mycenaean style. Several papers provide evidence to suggest that different regions of the Peloponnese established their own connections with Minoan Crete.
Eder and Zavadil’s introduction establishes the volume’s theoretical framework, basing it on French sociologist Henri Lefebvre’s notion that every society creates its own social landscape through social practice. The authors provide a brief overview of the papers in the volume, and note the role played by Early Mycenaean funerary landscapes in the creation of social differentiation, whereas the role of residential architecture remains less understood. James Wright’s keynote paper stresses the importance of human mobility and trade networks in the emergence of Mycenaean civilization, as these established conduits for interaction, competition, and the formation of social networks. Wright sees Minoan Crete as a cosmopolitan world where prominent mainlanders acquired goods and knowledge, which they used to consolidate power at home.
Most papers are organized by region, starting with Triphylia and the Ionian islands. Eder and Hadzi-Spiliopoulou discuss the organization of social space and the political landscape at Kakovatos. Their paper and the schematic 3D landscape model of the LH IIA–B elite residential building at Kakovatos with its visual links to the LH I–LH IIA tholos tombs across the valley, which graces the cover of this volume, beautifully illustrate the usefulness of landscape studies for understanding elite manipulation of space. Next is an important study by de Vree comparing grave goods from the Kakovatos tholos tombs with 114 other MH III–LH IIB/LH IIIA1 “closed” burial assemblages, primarily from the Peloponnese. The author concludes that Kilian-Dirlmeier’s social categories of Early Mycenaean tomb assemblages are valid not only at Mycenae and Knossos but also elsewhere. Tholos A at Kakovatos with its weapons, horse bridle piece, spectacular amber collar, etc. is the only top-ranking grave in Triphylia, demonstrating the pre-eminence of its occupants. Huber et al.’s fabric analyses reveal Kakovatos’ far-reaching connections, especially with the Argolid and Crete, and support Eder’s concept of a cultural koine between Triphylia and Messenia. Nikolentzos and Moutzouridis report on the fortified acropolis, tumuli, and tholos tomb at Kleidi-Samikon. Located on a strategic passageway north of Kakovatos, it is interpreted as a military outpost, first of Kakovatos, and later of the Pylian kingdom. Van Wijngaarden et al. present an innovative regional study using site location and grave types to define micro-, meso-, and macro-regions of human interaction and social practice. They conclude that Zakynthos had close connections with western Elis and Achaia, and progressively less with the other Ionian islands, Messenia, northwest Greece, and the Adriatic.
In Messenia, discoveries from foundation pits dug at Pylos for a new roof over the palace confirm the existence of Blegen’s Early Mycenaean fortification wall and Nelson’s sequence of buildings below the palace (Karapanagiotou et al.). Finds include MH and Early Mycenaean pottery assemblages as well as ca. 4000 well-stratified painted plaster fragments. Egan notes that most plaster pieces are of LH IIIA date, but others are older and some date to MH III, representing the earliest wall painting on the Greek mainland. Similarities with MM IIIB paintings at Knossos suggest direct contact between Pylos and Knossos. Vitale et al.’s study of an LH IIB pottery deposit from one foundation pit demonstrates the wide-ranging connections of Pylos, and in particular the growing dominance of Mycenaean-type vessels alongside local and Minoan traditions. As a counterpoint, Vlachopoulos’ detailed study of LH I–II pottery from the rock-cut chamber tombs at Volimidia, near Pylos, illustrates how outside influences were largely restricted to the upper levels of society, as the Volimidia tombs, ostensibly belonging to lower-ranking people, contained relatively few imports or Minoanizing pottery. Cosmopoulos reviews the monumental structures at Iklaina. Their new LH IIIA2 date raises the question whether they were built by Pylos’ ruler after a peaceful take-over of the site, or whether Iklaina remained independent until the buildings’ LH IIIB destruction, presumably by Pylos.
Several chapters focus on southwest Peloponnesian tombs as markers of social rank. Murphy makes a largely theoretical argument that tholos and chamber tombs and their wealthy grave goods were powerful tools for creating and maintaining social hierarchy at Pylos. Zavadil argues that, contrary to widespread opinion, tholos tombs in the southwest Peloponnese were used not only by people of the highest rank, but also by lower-ranking people although their tholos tombs were smaller and did not have a proper dromos. During the LH I/II transition and the LH II phase, top-ranking tholoi in Messenia were further distinguished by architectural elaboration; some continued into LH IIIB, possibly belonging to representatives of the Pylian palace. Petrakis notes that MH elite graves showed much variety, suggesting a lack of cross-regional competition. In LH I–IIA, greater investments in elite graves and increasing similarity in grave goods indicate enhanced elite competition within and between regions. In LH IIA, the spread of tholos tombs and rock-cut chamber tombs from the southwest Peloponnese to other parts of the peninsula and Attica as well as increasingly similar grave goods signal the formation of a supra-regional elite culture—a process driven not only by Mycenae, but by multiple elite centers, including Pylos.
In Lakonia, Voutsaki et al. argue that the MH III–LH IIB/IIIA North Cemetery at Ayios Vasileios, in spite of its overall poverty, belonged to a prominent social group because of its labor investment, use of non-local materials, and location near the later palace. The tombs’ similar orientation and restricted variability suggest the importance of projecting homogeneity and cohesion. Vasilogamvrou et al. note Minoan characteristics in the foundation terraces and stoas of the LH IIIA2 Early Mycenaean palace at Ayios Vasileios, indicating that its builders were familiar with Cretan architectural design and practices. Kiriatzi and Broodbank’s studies suggest that the nearby island of Kythera provided a conduit for bringing Cretan goods and practices to the Greek mainland, thus facilitating the rise of Mycenaean civilization. The island saw a significant population increase in this period as well as multiple intra-island networks.
Achaia and Arkadia are each represented by a single paper. Papazoglou-Manioudaki and Paschalidis report on two rich buildings and a tholos tomb at Mygdalia, Achaia, all dating to LH IIB–LH IIIA1. A wave of LH IIIA2 Early destructions here and elsewhere in Achaia indicates that the transition to the Palatial period was accompanied by violence. Salavoura reviews the Early Mycenaean remains from Arcadia, which show little evidence for socio-political complexity until LH IIB. She argues that this highland region was not isolated but acted as a thoroughfare between the major Early Mycenaean centers of the eastern, southern, and western Peloponnese. Arkadian elites adopted grave types from neighboring regions. The important sanctuary on Mt. Lykaion was in use since at least LH IIB as well.
The Argolid and Aigina are discussed last in this regional overview. Voutsaki notes the variability in MH III–LH I burial practices in the Argolid, even within the same cemeteries, and that Mycenae in spite of its leading role was not representative of the entire Argolid. In LH I, innovations previously seen in adult male burials became the norm, and graves were more elaborate, showing off wealth and foreign connections. Philippa-Touchais et al. attempt to explain why in the Shaft Grave period Mycenae and Tiryns became pre-eminent over Argos and Lerna. Using Weiberg’s Adaptive Cycle model, they find that Argos and Lerna experienced several cycles of moderate growth and reorganization in MH–LH II, whereas Mycenae was slower to develop but saw spectacular growth from MH IIIB onward. Keramidas et al. examine the LH IIA–B tholos tomb at Kazarma, set at a very visible location near a major route. It probably belonged to a local leading group, although an outside elite cannot be ruled out. Gauss reviews MH II–LH IIA developments at Kolonna. In spite of its proximity to Mycenae, Kolonna participated little in the growing Mycenaean trade network, and it did not adopt Mycenaean wheel-based pottery techniques until the LH IIIA1 phase, after the demise of its administrative center.
After this section follows four artifact studies. Konstantinidi-Syvridi describes the high quality and shared technological and stylistic traditions in precious metalworking among late Prepalatial elites. Dickinson updates his views on the different trajectories in pottery production among various regions in the Peloponnese and central Greece. Lindblom and Rutter suggest that the various regional polychrome painted pottery classes across southern and central Greece in the MH and LH I–LH IIA periods may have imitated multi-colored vessels in precious metals. Weilhartner argues that Early Mycenaean elites borrowed Minoan religious symbols and imagery selectively, adopting only those that fit into local Helladic cult practices. The final paper is by Galanakis who, echoing to some extent Zavadil’s study, points out that Early Mycenaean tholos tombs and rock-cut chamber tombs overlap in shape, size, and wealth of burial goods. All these aspects should be considered when interpreting a tomb’s social role.
In sum, this is an important volume with much new information and interesting interpretations. My only major concern is the uncritical use of the terms Minoan and Mycenaean by most authors, except Wright. In a volume that provides many new fine-grained analyses of the formation of Mycenaean culture, explicit discussions about the meaning and usefulness of these terms would have been desirable. The volume’s production is of high-quality, with excellent English-language editing by Nicola Wood, and superb copy-editing (I found extremely few typos or mistakes, e.g., p. 333, fig. 10 shows Tomb 14, not Tomb 4). The geographical index at the end is a very useful tool for researchers perusing a large and varied volume of papers such as this. One would wish for a larger introductory relief map with the sites discussed rather than the half-page map on p. 17, but this is a minor quibble. This publication much advances our understanding of this crucial period in the Peloponnese, and it is a must for any research library in Aegean prehistory.
Authors and titles
Abbreviations
Eva Alram-Stern and Barbara Horejs: “Preface”
Birgitta Eder and Michaela Zavadil: “(Social) Place and Space in Early Mycenaean Greece: An Introduction”
Keynote
James C. Wright: “Mobility and Agency in the Context of Space and Place in Early Mycenaean Greece”
Triphylia and Ionian Islands
Birgitta Eder and Georgia Hadzi-Spiliopoulou: “Strategies in Space: The Early Mycenaean Site of Kakovatos in Triphylia”
Christine de Vrée: “The Tholos Tombs of Kakovatos: Their Place in Early Mycenaean Greece”
Jasmin Huber, Georgia Kordatzaki, Evangelia Kiriatzi, and Hans Mommsen: “Consuming Local and Imported Pots at Kakovatos: Regional and Interregional Connections”
Kostas Nikolentzos and Panagiotis Moutzouridis: “The Archaeological Site of Kleidi-Samikon: An Early Mycenaean Settlement in Northern Triphylia Reconsidered”
Gert J. van Wijngaarden, Nienke Pieters, Ilona von Stein, and Corien Wiersma: “Of Micro-, Meso- and Macro-Regions: Regional Space in the Middle and Early Late Bronze Age Ionian Islands”
Messenia
Anna-Vassiliki Karapanagiotou, Dimosthenis Kosmopoulos, Sharon R. Stocker, and Jack L. Davis: “Archaeological Investigations and Research Associated with the Construction of the New Roof at the Palace of Nestor”
Emily C. Egan: “Early Mycenaean Wall Paintings from the Palace of Nestor”
Salvatore Vitale, Sharon R. Stocker, and Evangelia Malapani: “A Late Helladic IIB Pottery Deposit from the Ano Englianos Ridge at Pylos in Western Messenia”
Joanne M.A. Murphy: “Outside and Inside: Mortuary Rituals in Early Mycenaean Pylos”
Andreas G. Vlachopoulos: “The Early Mycenaeans of Pylos: The Evidence from the Chamber Tomb Cemetery of Volimidia”
Michael B. Cosmopoulos: “The Monumental Architecture of Iklaina”
Michaela Zavadil: “Mycenaean Messenia in the Making: The Evidence from the Tholos Tombs”
Vassilis Petrakis: “Transforming Expressions and Perceptions of Prestige in the Middle Helladic and Early Mycenaean Southwestern Peloponnese”
Lakonia and Kythera
Sofia Voutsaki, Vasco Hachtmann, and Ioanna Moutafi: “Space, Place and Social Structure in the North Cemetery, Ayios Vasileios”
Adamantia Vasilogamvrou, Eleftheria Kardamaki, and Nektarios Karadimas: “The Foundation System at the Palace of Ayios Vasileios, Xirokambi, Lakonia”
Evangelia Kiriatzi and Cyprian Broodbank: “Social Places and Spaces on and beyond Kythera during the Second Palace Period: Exploring the Island’s Landscape and Connectivity”
Achaia and Arkadia
Lena Papazoglou-Manioudaki and Constantinos Paschalidis: “The Foundation and Rise to Local Prominence of the Settlement on Mygdalia Hill, near Patras”
Eleni Salavoura: “Early Mycenaean Arkadia: Space and Place(s) of an Inland and Mountainous Region”
Argolid and Aigina
Sofia Voutsaki: “Social Change and Human Agency: The Argolid at the Onset of the Mycenaean Era”
Anna Philippa-Touchais, Gilles Touchais, and Anthi Balitsari: “The Social Dynamics of Argos in a Constantly Changing Landscape (MH II–LH II)”
Stefanos Keramidas, Sofia Spyropoulou, and Andromache Vassilopoulou: “Placing the Kazarma Tholos Tomb within the Early Mycenaean Argolid”
Eleni Konstantinidi-Syvridi: “Artisans in the Service of Royalty at Dendra and their Role in the Formation of Fashion Trends”
Walter Gauß: “Kolonna on Aigina: The Development of a Fortified Late Middle and Early Late Bronze Age Settlement”
General Aspects
Oliver Dickinson: “The Significance of Developments in Peloponnesian Pottery over the Middle to Late Helladic Transition”
Michael Lindblom and Jeremy B. Rutter: “An Explosion of Polychromy: Establishing Localised Ceramic Identities at the Dawn of the Mycenaean Era”
Jörg Weilhartner: “The Construction of Metaphysical Space: The Adoption of Minoan Cult Symbols and the Development of Mycenaean Religious Iconography”
Yannis Galanakis: “Ma(r)king Places: The Monumental Mortuary Landscapes of Early Mycenaean Greece”
Geographical Index