This excellent work on Roman imperial women by Mary T. Boatwright sums up many years of research in this field. More and better scholarship on Roman imperial women has emerged over the past few decades, providing these historical figures with the attention they deserve. However, in some cases the misogynistic vision with which they were portrayed by ancient authors has survived until the present. With this new book, Boatwright provides us with an excellent work closely based on source analysis, leaving behind any biased impressions.
This volume is also particularly interesting because, unlike most works on imperial women, it does not approach the subject as a sequence of biographies but establishes a series of issues through which the position and visibility of these women are assessed. The research approaches the subject from seven different perspectives, ranging from imperial women and imperial power to imperial women’s trips with their husbands and other family members. The seven chapters and the conclusions condense Boatwright’s research in order to “present chronologically the mores, laws, and evolving structures of the most significant functions and venues of Rome’s imperial women” (p. 3). The analysis spans from Octavia and Livia at the beginning of the Principate, to the Syrian Princesses of the Severan period. The longue durée approach aims to ascertain possible evolutions in the role of imperial women.
In the first chapter the author addresses possible “institutional powers” of Roman imperial women. For this, Livia, wife of Augustus and mother of Tiberius, is set as the base for further development. Through the analysis of written, numismatic, and archaeological sources the author concludes that, after a brief period in 35 BCE when Livia and Octavia received several prerogatives new for women, they had no specific power. However, they received other kind of honours throughout their life. The power of these women is based on their belonging to the imperial household and court, which enabled them to influence their male relatives.
In the second part, Boatwright’s considers imperial women’s rights, obligations, and privileges, in order to discover whether they were above the law or received any preferential treatment. Through Augustus’ laws on marriage and adultery, women started to be judged in public courts, when they had previously been tried in the domus by the paterfamilias. This meant that during the Julio-Claudian era many princesses and other female relatives accused of adultery were tried before the Senate. Most of these cases were accompanied by accusations of maiestas. Nowadays, it is understood that those trials concealed treason charges. Thus, being relatives of the emperor gave these women privileges, but not a special position in the eyes of the law. In fact, their belonging to the imperial family seems to have made them more likely to be tried or convicted for various crimes. Their high position raised the potential for scandal and their actions could be taken as dangerous for the maintenance of the regime.
The third chapter is devoted to imperial women’s role in the imperial household, proving that, despite their central position in the maintenance of the family and imperial ideology, women did not receive individualized attention, but were incorporated into the domus Augusta. Women were a central part of Augustus’ succession strategies, as he lacked a male heir. However, the public image of Principate did not allow women to be perceived individually, but in a blurred fashion enclosed into the family. Their image as mothers was crucial, even when during the Adoptive Era, some emperors did not produce offspring. From that moment onwards, public recognition was extended to other female relatives, such as sisters or nieces. The feminine role strengthened in this period and reached new heights with the Syrian princesses.
The fourth section assesses the link between imperial women and the sacred. For this, the presence of their images in numismatics and their relationship with imperial cult is considered. The religious space connects with those activities that, in the Republic, were seen as acceptable for women outside their homes. Coins with images of empresses are understood as the reflection of the prince’s or court’s preference for the public image of women. In relation to the imperial cult, the consecration of women is seen as an essential element in the consolidation of the phenomenon of the Principate. However,their cults received less attention and most of them never had a temple built in their honour. On the other hand, when imperial women became priestesses of the imperial cult, this position put them before other members of the State on special occasions, such as when the consecrated emperor was commemorated. It is also stated that imperial women as priestesses in Rome paved the way for other women who became priestesses of imperial divae in the provinces, thus, acting as drivers of a means of social promotion. Despite all that, it is argued that women did not gain appreciable power through participation in the imperial cult.
In Chapter Five, Boatwright the presence of imperial women in the cityscape of Rome both through their public appearances and also through their sculptures and monuments. This presence was discreet at the beginning, due to the idea that Roman matronae should not appear outdoors unaccompanied. Some events during which they could be seen were the funera and other religious rituals. The much less frequent presence of women in adventus and triumphs is also reflected in the sources. Lastly, the author conducts a tour of Rome, highlighting architectonic and sculptural monuments borne by imperial women or those where imperial women are mentioned. Her main conclusion is that, even though some areas of the city (such as the Campus Martius or Circus Flaminius) were specially used by women for their monuments, evidence suggest that imperial women were not very visible in Rome. The frequent placement of their monuments in residential areas could have helped stablishing the ideal of Imperial family, while their feminine presence was kept out of the main urban public spaces.
The representations of imperial women in statuary are dealt with in Chapter Six. Boatwright’s main ambition here is to study the functions and messages these monuments conveyed. It has been traditionally observed that images of imperial women represented and established expectations relative to the imperial house, rather than reflecting gender norms in Rome. When the time came for imperial women to be publicly represented, there was no standard of public images for Roman matronae. All known examples were Greek divinities and abstractions. Empresses did not receive a specific typology that became just theirs, as shown by the indeterminacy of their images. That also meant that private and public images of women could have influenced one another. However, despite their indeterminacy, imperial women’s images were always used to express connections with the imperial family and to praise imperial ideology. Once women were related to the imperial household, they had little or no independence in Rome, including in the choice of how they were represented.
Travel outside Rome contributed to the visibility of the emperor and the imperial family, as is put forward in chapter seven. The strength and continuity of the imperial family was expressed through the presence of women there, even though feminine attendance to the camps and provinces was highly criticised. In the Julio-Claudian era it was the younger princesses who travelled along their husbands. Still, at this time, an increasing number or non-imperial women started joining their male relatives’ journeys outside Rome. During the second century travel by women lost the censure to which it had previously been subjected. The Syrian princesses of the third century inherited this habit. However, female presence with the legions continued to provide a valid excuse to justify defeats and other problems, as in the case of Heliogabalus’ rise to power or the mutiny that killed Alexander and his mother. Imperial women do not seem to have enjoyed any kind of official role during these trips, nevertheless, an essential female function is shown by the appearance of mater castrorum title. As the Principate developed and the court became itinerant, it was also necessary for customs to change and for women to travel with their families, leaving aside the restrictions they suffered when in Rome.
To sum up, the book is an essential contribution to the research on Roman imperial women, their position and power. Despite the wide scope and chronological range of this book, Boatwright is capable of addressing all subjects and periods masterfully. She also makes an impressive use of all the available sources. Of special usefulness are the many appendices on the lives of these women. The numerous pictures are also a great help in understanding the images and scope of imperial women.
This book might be a bit complicated for those who have no prior understanding of the topic, but the appendices and pictures make it easier to read. There is just one point that can be seen as “controversial”. That is the (so-called) marginality of imperial women. Of course, it should be stated that they wielded a marginal power if compared to imperial males, but that comparison seems not to be correct when the historical context is considered. Comparing imperial women to imperial males is not fair, as their role was created to suit imperial ideology. It would have been impossible for them to overstep that role in their own times. However, most chapters in this book have proven that imperial women were in a position superior to most “common” males and enjoyed a superior visibility and influence. It is difficult to consider imperial women’s position as marginal once the enormous power they wielded, and the social position of Republican women before them are taken into account. And, after all, every historical issue should be addressed in its own context, and not from a contemporary perspective. This “marginality” should be carefully pondered so as to avoid giving the impression that female imperial power is a lesser subject, even if they could not hold official or constitutional prerogatives. Maybe a better word than “marginality” could have been chosen. This is, however, a minor detail that does not interfere in the originality and results of the work. Lastly, the great amount of effort put into assembling this book should also be acknowledged as a signal contribution to the field.