This book aims to illustrate, through a selection of ancient sources, how certain elite women exercised considerable power and influence in the public sphere and the way ancient historiography and literature represented women when they held positions of power.
The book is organized into three sections. The first section focuses on “the woman-run state” and examines the case of the “Amazons” (p. 3) and the “Female Revolution” (p. 27), as seen through the wives of Assemblywomen by Aristophanes. The second section centers on “Mythical and Legendary Queens”, analyzing figures such as Semiramis, queen of Babylon (p. 109); Omphale, queen of Lydia (p. 123); Hypsipyle, queen of Lemnos (p. 131); Dido, queen of Carthage (p. 161); and Lavinia, regent of Lavinium (p. 213). The third section addresses “Historical Queens”, specifically Artemisia I, queen of Caria (p. 219); Salome Alexandra, queen of Judea (p. 227); Cleopatra VII, queen of Egypt (p. 233); Amanirenas, queen of Kush (p. 259); Boudicca, queen of the Iceni (p. 256); and Zenobia, regent of Palmyra (p. 277).
Each section dedicated to these women includes selected ancient sources—both in prose and poetry—of varying length and number (for instance, there are eight passages for Cleopatra VII, the most documented figure in the volume alongside the Amazons, while only one passage is provided for Zenobia and one for Semiramis). Each source is preceded by a brief note on the ancient author and the woman to whom it refers, and each section is supplemented by explanatory notes at the end of the volume and by a concise and up-to-date bibliography, although in English only. The passages are not presented in their original Latin or Greek; instead, they are provided in English translation only. In some cases, the translations were specifically produced for this volume, while in others they were drawn from previous editions.
The editor prefaces these three sections with a comprehensive introduction, which outlines the theoretical premises and methodological foundations of research on the topic such as the association between women and power in antiquity[1]. This association is interpreted as an apparent oxymoron, because official power—a man’s game in classical antiquity— is attributed to female figures who, according to ancient tradition, were instead destined for domestic life (p. XXIV).
The editor addresses fundamental issues such as: the status of women in the Greek and Roman worlds (with reference to varying degrees of female influence or authority within the home, manus, guardianship, the ius trium liberorum, and the role of the Vestal Virgins) (pp. X–XII); the characteristics of female representation in classical sources, which stems from an almost exclusively male perspective and reflects gender prejudices, often misogynistic, whereby men evaluated female conduct and subscribed to a range of sexist beliefs which they used to justify the exclusion of women from public power (p. XII); and the roles assigned to women and codified through myths and legends (pp. XIII and XXI). The introduction additionally considers specific arenas of power and the instruments of female power—traditionally male prerogatives—such as dominance, public speech, issuing laws, commanding armies, and subjecting others to their control; the overturning of gender roles and the resulting transgression of social order that occurs when women rather than men wield official power and do not use their power to support men, but actively challenge male power by exercising it themselves (as in the myth of Hercules and Omphale and the case of the Amazons, where social order is restored only when the warrior women are defeated: pp. XIII–XIV); and the application of symbolic language in historiographical and literary descriptions of women in power.
Several of the themes deserve further reflection. One central issue concerns the motivations behind women’s political intervention in ancient sources. Particularly noteworthy are the editor’s observations regarding the portrayal of men close to these women as weak, foolish, and in need of correction. The inadequacy of the men for political leadership causes female intervention and justifies the reversal of traditional gender attributes, with men depicted as effeminate and women as possessing masculine traits. This characterisation occurs in the case of Hercules and Omphale—an analogy that Octavian deliberately applied to Antony and Cleopatra as a means of delegitimization in his propaganda, as historiography has repeatedly highlighted[2].
A second theme explored is female violence and its instrumentalisation in historiography, which emphasizes it in light of male anxieties about the destructive vengefulness of female power. Boudicca is a complex case study for illustrating this issue: her acts of violence against Roman women ultimately discredit her. Despite other aspects of her conduct being potentially commendable, saevitia and ferocia are characteristics of barbarians[3].
A third theme is the inclination of women for deceit and cunning. A striking example is the clever trick employed by Artemisia at the Battle of Salamis to escape and even win glory, even at the expense of her own side, as recounted in Herodotus’ Histories[4]. Cunning is also closely linked to women in the use of speech, a key manner powerful women exercise control. This represents an overturning of gender roles, as political speech was a male prerogative, and its use by women constitutes an unacceptable intrusion into the male sphere and an abnegation of femininity. Cleopatra exemplifies this dynamic, through her command of multiple languages, which allows her to speak directly to various people without relying on interpreters[5].
The volume will be a valuable resource for those seeking an introduction to the subject, especially enthusiasts of ancient history and students at the beginning of their academic journey, rather than specialists. The reproduction of sources allows readers to engage with the Greek and Roman worlds through ancient voices, rendered in reliable English translations, which allow non-specialists to access the ancient sources without knowledge of the classical languages. Additionally, the introduction provides useful guidance for readers who lack the necessary background to conduct independent research on the topic. The attention given to lesser-known figures (such as Salome Alexandra and Amanirenas) also has the potential to stimulate interest in similarly overlooked but nonetheless significant profiles.
These positive aspects outweigh select points of criticism. First, the criterion for selecting passages in each case study is not explicitly stated (for instance, in the case of Zenobia, the sole reference is to Historia Augusta, a complex and often unreliable source whose origins remain a matter of modern historiography debate). Second, the volume presents only literary and historiographical sources; for a non-specialist audience, the analysis would have benefited significantly from a comparative reading of different types of documentary evidence (such as coins—for example Zenobia’s issues; iconographic sources— for example, depictions of the Amazons; and archaeological evidence— for example, the Dendera Zodiac for Cleopatra). Such an approach is essential not only for reconstructing events, but also for understanding different modes of representation and self-representation, and distinguishing historical data from stereotypes, manipulations, and falsifications in literary and historiographical sources. A final observation is that the volume seeks to provide a broad overview of how ancient sources represent women in power, bringing together highly diverse accounts from myth, legend, and history. These narratives, however, serve distinct purposes, which may not be easily discernible to the non-specialist reader: some are historical events, while others are purely literary constructs designed to establish behavioral models—both positive and negative—through legends and myths.
Despite these considerations, the volume has a significant merit: it identifies a compelling overarching objective that applies to many studies of ancient history. By reconstructing diverse episodes—mythical, legendary, and historical—in which women exercised power, Stephanie McCarter ultimately helps to illuminate the reasons and circumstances that led to the exclusion of women from power in classical antiquity. Moreover, her study can offer us answers to the reasons why power continues to be associated with masculinity in the minds of so many, including women themselves.
Notes
[1] On this theme see A. Bielman Sánchez, I. Cogitore, A. Kolb (éds.), Femmes Influentes dans le monde hellénistique et à Rome, Grenoble 2016 (2021) (reviewed BMCR 2019.03.11; R. Rodríguez López, M. J. Bravo Bosch (eds.), Mujeres en tiempos de Augusto: realidad social e imposición legal, Valencia 2016 ; C. Rollinger, N. Viermann (eds.), Empresses-in-Waiting. Female Power and Performance at the Late Roman Court, Liverpool 2024.
[2] See G. Cresci Marrone, Marco Antonio. La vita inimitabile del triumviro che contese l’Impero a Ottaviano, Roma 2020, p. 165.
[3] On Boudicca see M.J. Aldhouse-Green, Boudica Britannia: Rebel, War-leader and Queen, Harlow 2006.
[4] On Artemisia see M. Zaccarini, Erodoto e le donne, Roma 2024, pp. 91-98.
[5] On Cleopatra see L. Capponi, Cleopatra, Roma, Bari 2021 and B. Legras, Cléopâtre l’Egyptienne, Paris 2021 (reviewed BMCR 2023.08.21).