This book is the result of a reworking and harmonization of a series of articles and contributions published over the past decades by Stanley Stowers, Emeritus Professor of Religious Studies at Brown University. While many of the themes explored here have already been addressed by the author in various contexts, this volume revisits them with a cohesive analysis, offering an overarching perspective on his research. The author has had the opportunity to reflect once again on these topics with greater awareness, considering the developments in scholarship that have emerged in the last years.
As the title suggests, the book examines specific aspects of the origins and spread of Christianity, focusing particularly—though not exclusively—on Pauline literary production. Stowers’ aim is to situate the Christian movement within the broader religious landscape of the Roman Empire, thereby challenging traditional narratives that treat Christianity (and Judaism) as sui generis phenomena. His work aligns with a trend that has become increasingly prominent since the second half of the twentieth century, which seeks to integrate Christianity into the wider spectrum of ancient religious practices rather than viewing it as an isolated development. Over the years, Stowers has significantly contributed to this perspective: this volume provides a broad and comprehensive synthesis of his approach.
The book consists of twelve chapters, each of which, as mentioned, revisits, expands, and reexamines a previously published contribution. The chapters are divided into four sections: Part One is dedicated to ‘Everyday Religion and Its Alternatives’; Part Two focuses on the figure of ‘Paul as Freelance Expert’; Part Three explores ‘Paul’s Message and Objectives’; and finally, Part Four, ‘Historians and Critical Historiography’, addresses historiographical issues related to the study of early Christianity.
The volume opens with an autobiographical introduction in which Stowers reflects on his intellectual trajectory and the methodological shifts that shaped his scholarship. His academic career unfolded during “an exciting time when several developments were beginning to shake up the staid areas of New Testament Studies and Patristics” (p. 1). The introduction traces his engagement with various theoretical approaches, including social studies, anthropology, and cognitive studies, and provides insight into the scholarly influences that informed his work. His narrative offers a valuable insider’s perspective on how early Christianity has been studied over the past sixty years. Stowers’ firsthand account allows the reader to grasp the intellectual currents that have shaped the field. It is particularly compelling to hear from a scholar who has personally witnessed and contributed to this period of transformation in the history of the discipline.
The reflections on his intellectual and research journey lead to the core argument of the book. A central theme is the idea of religion as a ‘social kind’ and the necessity of studying Christianity within the broader framework of ancient Mediterranean religions. Stowers warns against modern generalizations about religion, arguing that “the way that we moderns think about religion with doctrine, … true religion of the heart and mind and so on, should not be generalized” (p. 23). This methodological stance remains a topic of ongoing debate, particularly in studies of imperial and late antique religions, and Stowers repeatedly reinforces the importance of avoiding anachronistic projections.
The first section examines various aspects of ancient Mediterranean religions. While it does not focus exclusively on early Christianity, it is essential for understanding the religious landscape in which Christianity emerged. Stowers classifies ancient religions into three broad categories: the ‘Religion of Everyday Social Exchange’ (RESE), an informal and widespread system that did not require institutional settings; civic religion, which was structured, hierarchical, and tied to official rituals; and the religion of literate experts, which was often u-topic—not anchored to a specific geographical location but rather linked to intellectual and literary production. Paul’s activity belongs precisely to this latter category. Moreover, a fourth type also emerges when the religion shaped by literary production influence civic religion. The scholar refers to this case as the religion of literate experts and political power. The Christian churches that began to emerge approximately from the third century onward undoubtedly represent the clearest example of the “institutionalization” of precepts not only from Paul, but also from later teachers such as Justin or the “heretic” Valentinus.
Stowers also discusses the role of religious associations in antiquity, engaging with recent scholarship such as the work of John S. Kloppenborg[1]. Through epigraphic analysis, he explores how early Christianity initially shared the same associative structures as other religious realities before developing a more ‘intellectualized identity.’ Finally, Stowers’ discussion of ‘Common Judaism’ further challenges the notion that imperial-era Judaism was a sui generis phenomenon, arguing that, at the level of RESE and of religious practices, Judaism existed in continuity with other religious forms: “the modes of religiosity based upon clusters of practices and cognitive propensities should at least raise questions about models like Common Judaism” (p. 98).
The second section shifts to Paul’s letters, particularly his correspondence with the Corinthians. Stowers examines how ‘freelance experts’ like Paul communicated their messages to diverse audiences with varying levels of literacy. Drawing on comparisons with other contemporary texts, even from vastly different contexts, such as Petronius’ Satyricon, Stowers highlights the presence and distinct characteristics of these experts during this period. These figures played a crucial role in shaping social formations through written discourse. Paul’s letters, much like other literary productions of the time, were not merely vehicles for religious instruction but part of a wider communicative strategy that sought to establish authority, create networks of affiliation, and influence the worldview of their recipients.
Stowers also underscores the heterogeneity of Paul’s audience in Corinth, deeply embedded in Greco-Roman religious traditions. This perspective invites reflection on widely discussed debates in New Testament studies, for instance, the “baptism for the dead” (mentioned in 1Cor 15:29) and the transmission of Abrahamic descent through the pneuma. By situating Paul’s message within the broader religious and intellectual currents of the time, Stowers challenges readings that isolate Pauline thought from its cultural environment, emphasizing instead its adaptability and engagement with prevailing discourses.
Shifting the focus, the analysis of the Letter to the Romans challenges the triumphalist narrative, developed from the second/third centuries onward by Christian authors such as Irenaeus of Lyons. This narrative depicts the Christian message as spreading rapidly and leading to the swift and total replacement of Jewish communities, especially in Rome and other urban centres. This vision has long influenced the way modern scholars have approached the history of early Christianity. Stowers argues against this assumption, proposing a more fluid and dynamic process in which religious identities remained complex and interwoven. Applying Occam’s razor, or the principle of parsimony, he reconstructs how individuals—such as a supposed well-educated kyrios—might have encountered and engaged with Paul’s message through social networks rather than through the framework of rigidly defined Christian communities.
The third section of the book explores Paul’s intellectual framework, particularly his reworking of and interaction with Stoic and Platonic ideas. While the influence of Stoicism on Paul has been widely discussed, notably by scholars such as Troels Engberg-Pedersen,[2] Stowers highlights Paul’s creative and eclectic appropriation of philosophical concepts, not as a systematic philosopher, but rather as someone who adapted ideas to serve his own rhetorical and theological objectives. The author also revisits the notion of ‘participation in Christ.’ He contextualizes Paul’s language within first-century genealogical thought, where such participation was understood as a concrete, rather than merely symbolic, reality. Similarly, he reexamines Paul’s discourses on sin, arguing that notions of human corruption were not exclusive to the Judaeo-Christian tradition but were also present in contemporary philosophers—such as the Cynics.
These reflections introduce the final chapter of the section, which focuses on the issue of the audience to whom Paul’s moral teachings were addressed. The question is as follows: are these teachings addressed to ‘ordinary humans’? To explain the apparent contrast between a general audience and a teaching that seems to aspire to a wisdom beyond the ordinary, Stowers engages with five key interpretative arguments, which have been explored by various scholars. Based on these theories, Stowers concludes that Paul’s teachings were indeed directed at ordinary humans. However, their ordinariness was not an endpoint but rather the foundation for a transformative process that led them toward assimilation into Christ.
The final part of the book (chapters 10–12) addresses three broad historiographical issues. The first concerns the use of the concept of ‘community’ in the study of early Christianity. This, in my view, is one of the most compelling chapters of the book, as it addresses the persistent use of a concept that scholars recognize as problematic yet continue to employ widely. The notion of Christian communities as applied to early Christianity, particularly in its first centuries, proves to be historically and socially inadequate. Through a thorough analysis, Stowers explains why this concept, often tied to a ‘myth of origins’, should be used with greater caution. The term ‘community’ is frequently employed without concrete evidence of actual linguistic and cultural cohesion among groups that were, in reality, far more heterogeneous. As a result, this concept is often applied uncritically, reinforcing a rigid distinction between Christians and pagans. Furthermore, the assumption that ancient Christian literature reflects the views of an entire community is problematic, especially when compared to other ancient texts. As Stowers notes, “Classicists do not approach Vergil’s and Philodemus’s writings as the products or mirrors of Vergil’s or Philodemus’s communities” (p. 245).
Moving beyond this framework, Stowers advocates for a more nuanced approach that accounts for the social complexities of early Christianity. Rather than assuming a monolithic community, he highlights the diversity of social formations in which the Christian movement emerged and developed. His analysis invites scholars to reconsider how they conceptualize religious affiliation in antiquity and to adopt models that better reflect the fluidity of identity, practice, and belief in the first centuries of Christian history.
In Chapter 11, the author returns to the question of Stoic influence, this time in the Gospel of Matthew. He focuses on Jesus’ teachings and their resemblance to those of Stoic teachers, not to argue for direct dependence but to highlight shared ethical frameworks and instructional methods. This perspective invites a reassessment of how Jesus’ message might have been understood within the larger philosophical frameworks of the period.
The final chapter examines how divinity was perceived to manifest itself to humans. Stowers contrasts the elaborate theological systems of Homer and Hesiod with traditional Greek religion, which was less concerned with abstract speculation and more focused on interpreting divine will, particularly through divination. From this perspective, certain Gospel episodes can be seen as breaking with traditional religious reasoning. A key example is Jesus’ response to the question of whether a man was born blind due to his own sin or that of his parents. His explanation (the man was born blind so that Jesus could perform a sign; see Jn 9:3) shifts the focus away from causality, reframing suffering within a theological framework of revelation and divine intervention. Once again, Stowers’ analysis underscores the importance of placing early Christianity within the broader religious landscape of antiquity.
Ultimately, Stowers’ book serves as a synthesis of past research while presenting a broad and compelling perspective. It reassesses how Christianity has been studied within the framework of ancient Mediterranean religions and, through its many insights, encourages further exploration of the subject. By engaging with a wide range of historical, literary, and methodological questions, the volume not only provides a reflection on past scholarship but also offers a strong foundation for future studies in the field.
Notes
[1] See for example J.S. Kloppenborg, Christ’s Association: Connection and Belonging in the Ancient City (New Haven, CT 2019).
[2] See in particular T. Engberg-Pedersen, “A Stoic Understanding of Pneuma in Paul,” in T. Engberg-Pedersen et al. (eds), Philosophy at the Roots of Christianity (Copenhagen 2006),101-123, and Cosmology of the Self in the Apostle Paul: The Material Spirit (Oxford 2010).