[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review]
This multilingual volume is mainly based on the papers of the participants in a digital conference hosted by the Free University Berlin in June 2022. The chapters of the volume focus mostly on historical sources, but there are also chapters on epigraphic, numismatic, and archaeological material. Overall, the volume shows that this was a period in which imperial connections with the eastern provinces became deeper and more prominent, and at the same time a period in which different cultural influences intermingled.
The editors’ introduction begins by considering why the Severans could not escape being studied through the narrative of origins. In this sense, they emphasize the impact on the modern perspective of whether ancient sources such as Cassius Dio and Herodian refer to geographical affiliation when discussing the Severans. They note that Cassius Dio in particular was willing to use stereotypes for some members of the Severans, and that there are passages in ancient sources ranging from the Historia Augusta to Eutropius where geographical background is mentioned. The conference was organized to seek answers to questions stemming from this ‘narrative of origin’. In the paragraphs that follow, the contributors are identified and their contributions are briefly evaluated.
Matthäus Heil’s paper focuses on the women of the Severans, especially Julia Domna. He rejects, with strong references and interpretations, the long-accepted ideological and sometimes unscientifically motivated clichéd point of view initiated by A. Domaszewski, which portrays a woman who rules her husband, adheres to Syrian traditions, and is in every respect an eastern woman.[1] According to Heil, Julia Domna appears as a strong Hellenistic empress, and a female ruler like her can only be found among the empresses of the early Byzantine empire.
In the next chapter, Julia Hoffmann-Salz analyses how birthplace or place of origin was used and perceived by inhabitants of the Roman empire and argues that descriptions such as ‘Syrian’ or ‘Arab’ define a civic rather than an ethnic identity. Based on the examples of Emesa and Arca, which can be called the homeland of the Severans (i.e., Julia Domna, Caracalla, Elagabal, and Severus Alexander), she discusses how these places are used positively or negatively in literary sources. Ziad Sawaya makes a comprehensive assessment of the Phoenician cities mainly through numismatical evidence. Sawaya sheds light on the policies of Septimius Severus, especially after the struggle with Pescennius Niger, showing how the fluctuating developments in the Phoenician cities under the subsequent emperors were reflected on coins. She also covers the historical developments of cities such as Sidon, Tyre, and Berytus during the Severan period.
Holger Wienholz examines the work of Malalas, a significant and much-debated late antique chronicler, in the context of the building activities of the Severans, particularly those of Caracalla. He argues that there is a close connection between the inscriptions at Baalbek/Heliopolis and Caracalla, and furthermore, provides compelling evidence that Malalas may have actually referred to Caracalla, who shared the same official name, rather than Antoninus Pius, in relation to the building activities in the region. He also discusses the reasons behind both the unfinished and completed structures.
The next two articles relate to the settlement of Palmyra and its surroundings. Udo Hartmann discusses how Palmyra, the oasis city, rose to prominence during the Severans, became integrated into the empire, and how its local elites gained power during this process. He also explores the factors that prepared the city for its increasing strength after the Severans. Ann-Christine Sander focuses more on border security than urban life, examining the legal allegiance and mission of local elites/tribal chiefs to ensure order for the empire. She notes that the Tadmorites considered mutual benefit in their relationship with Rome, through which they obtained various honorary titles and privileges, and that they functioned as police, intervening on-site, especially for caravan security, for the Roman empire.[2]
The contributions by Hadrien Bru and Babett Edelmann-Singer focus on Asia Minor. Bru analyses the inscriptions of settlements in the regions of Phrygia Paroreios and Pisidia in the context of Severan rule, including earthquakes, legal and border issues, the authorisation of the organisation of Greek games, and regional and local relations. In addition, he evaluates the votive offerings of these settlements and village communities which honored the emperors to reinforce their loyalty to Rome. Edelmann-Singer, for his contribution, focuses on the provincial elites in Asia Minor, who were the main factor behind the development of cities, especially who rose to the rank of senator, as their numbers increased phenomenally under the Severans. She analyses all aspects of the functions of the local assemblies in which these elites were active and their use and perception of the titles koinarch and archiereus. Both contributions argue that local developments and processes in Asia Minor under Severus were largely shaped by the reactions of the provinces, and that there was a complex relationship between the local policies of the emperors and the eagerness of the cities to gain local privileges.
Simon Lentzsch evaluates information from the Byzantine poet Tzetzes which suggests that Hannibal’s tomb was restored by Septimius Severus, based on the theme of ‘origin/ ethnic reference,’ consistent with the overall focus of this volume. Lentzch points out the fallacy of interpreting this restoration in terms of a shared identity, such as ‘Africanness’ or ‘Punicness’, and suggests that restoring the tomb of a Punic military and historical figure with a controversial image (even a former enemy) may have been a not uncommon practice when visiting provinces in order to strengthen the local economy through building activities, or to commemorate a military leader such as the emperor himself.
Ricardo Bertolazzi offers commentary on an uncommon situation by evaluating the unique titles in the honorific inscriptions for the Severan dynastic women Julia Domna, Julia Maesa, and Julia Mamaea. He argues that the cities of Histria and Augusta Traiana, where those inscriptions were discovered, recognized the importance and status of these women at this time compared to disinterested or young emperors. He shows that the titles used in the Greek east to honour emperors were adapted to these Augustae in feminine forms such as Fortune of the Inhabited World and Mistress of the Inhabited World, and that these cities on the Danube, at the peak of their urban development, were engaged in inter-city rivalries and efforts to gain and maintain local privileges by appealing to the rulers.
Giorgos Mitropoulos’ chapter analyses the practices and activities of Severans towards the province of Achaia, complementing the articles that focus on the provinces of Asia Minor. He argues that Septimius Severus and his successors (especially Severus Alexander) continued the Antonine tradition of religious and political ‘Philhellenism’ by establishing close relations with Athens and other Greek cities. Moreover, it is understood that the Severans were interested in solving problems in the province and took many administrative steps in this direction, taking care of the region with specialised officials and letters, and respecting ancient Greek traditions by granting privileges to organise imperial and Greek games.
The next three chapters deal with the empire’s eastern frontier and neighbouring regions beyond. Frank Schleicher analyses Severan policy towards Armenia (which had largely ceased to be a military route under the Severans), the Caucasus region, and the Black Sea coast. He cites various sources to argue that organised puppet tribes of the Lazi and local leaders in Colchis were promoted as a means to maintain Roman power in the region and that this emerged as the new policy of this period. Furthermore, the author shows that Armenia ceased to be of direct interest and was only dealt with when its rulers were involved in a dispute or rebellion against Rome. Giusto Traina focuses on Tiridates (Trdat) of Armenia, a rising Armenian ruler during the Severan period, with a brief contribution through literary sources. His origins and its role in the Parthia-Armenia-Roman balance of power form the basis of this chapter. Another contribution on the eastern frontier is by Lucinda Dirven. She discusses the reasons for the invincibility of Hatra, which was repeatedly besieged by the Romans and later by the Sassanids in the region of al-Jazira in present-day Iraq, citing the factor of guerrillas of mobile Arab tribes and its geographical features.
Susann S. Lusnia makes an archaeological contribution, turning the spotlight on architecture and art. In her detailed survey of the monuments of the Roman city in the context of Severan architectural conceptions and the influence of the Syrian architectural style, she reflects that in many cases the Severans used architecture as a political tool to position themselves within the historical tradition or to focus on representations of dynastic members.
Werner Eck analyses the situation of the Roman army under Severus to better understand it in the light of military diplomas. Based on this group of sources, he concludes that, contrary to expectations, there were no major changes in the Roman army during the Severan period, but that Italy was henceforth largely excluded as a reservoir for reinforcing the army. Eck also explains the rarity of military diplomas for auxiliary units in this period by pointing to the Constitutio Antoniniana.
The last chapter is by Kostas Buraselis. Buraselis, writing an epilogue of the entire volume, argues that the Severans, ‘no more or less Roman than Janus’, endeavoured to cleverly maintain the Antonine identity and policies, while at the same time taking steps to secure the empire’s future.
Although some of the contributions in this volume offer a limited contribution to the field or repeat what is already widely accepted, they keep the subject up to date in the context of the Severan impact on the eastern provinces of the empire. Many other chapters provide valuable insights. Although it will be difficult to stop studies of the Severans that are based on the ‘narrative of origin’, arguably the most valuable achievement of this book is its rejection of many stereotypical interpretations of the Severans and their times. The geographical scope of the writings in this volume extends not only to the cities of Syria and Phoenicia, but also from the Lower Danube to Caucasus. In this regard, it offers significant contributions to numerous regional studies of the Severan period. In addition, the book provides valuable information not only on the east under the Severans, which had a distinctive Roman character, but also on individual members of the dynasty. All in all, this book is highly recommended for all readers studying the eastern provinces of Rome, especially from a socioeconomic and political point of view.
Authors and Titles
- The Eastern Roman Empire under the Severans – old Connections, new Beginnings? An introduction, Julia Hoffmann-Salz, Matthäus Heil, Holger Wienholz
- Die syrische Kaiserin. Ein Schlagwort und seine Abgründe, Matthäus Heil
- Emesa and Arca as imperial patriae under the Severans, Julia Hoffmann-Salz
- The Relations between the Severan Emperors and the Cities of Phoenicia: Evidence for Imperial Privileges and Retribution, Ziad Sawaya
- Severische Bauprojekte bei Iohannes Malalas, Holger Wienholz
- Palmyra unter den Severern, Udo Hartmann
- How to police Rome’s desert frontier (under Severan rule) – an alternative narration of Tadmur-Palmyra’s desert police, Ann-Christine Sander
- Les Sévères en Phrygie Parorée et en Pisidie, Hadrien Bru
- Nothing New in the East? The Severan Emperors and the Provincial Elite in the Eastern Roman Empire, Babett Edelmann-Singer
- In the footsteps of the past – the Severans and the Tomb of Hannibal, Simon Lentzsch
- The Severan Augustae as Mistresses of the World, Riccardo Bertolazzi
- The Severan Dynasty and Greece: New Beginnings, Old Connections, Giorgos Mitropoulos
- Armenien und der Südkaukasus in severischer Zeit – historiographische Tradition und politische Bedeutung, Frank Schleicher
- Trdat, king of Greater Armenia in the early third century, Giusto Traina
- Septimius Severus at Hatra. Old Tactics and New Beginnings, Lucinda Dirven
- West Meets East? Assessing Eastern Influences in the Art and Architecture of Severan Rome, Susann S. Lusnia
- Die Severer und das Militär im Spiegel der diplomata militaria, Werner Eck
- Orbis mutans. A Sort of Severan Research Interim Epilogue, Kostas Buraselis
Notes
[1] Domaszewski’s views have also been largely refuted by the works of E. Kettenhofen, F. Ghedini, and B. Schröpe, as well as other scholars. For approaches to the women of the Severan dynasty, see, B. Schöpe, Der römische Kaiserhof in severischer Zeit (193-235 n. Chr.), Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2014, 177ff.
[2] For the most recent study see, R. Raja, The Oxford handbook of Palmyra. Oxford handbooks. New York: Oxford University Press, 2024.